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Viral testing in ME/CFS

2026-04-20T23:49:40Z

Hip:Improved text

The viruses most commonly found in myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) patients as chronic infections are the two enteroviruses: [[Coxsackie B virus|coxsackievirus B]] and [[echovirus]]; the three herpesviruses: [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[HHV-6]] and [[cytomegalovirus]]; and the coronavirus: [[SARS-CoV-2]], which causes the long COVID form of ME/CFS. These are the infections that ME/CFS doctors will typically test for. Usually ME/CFS patients will have chronic infections with one or more of these viruses.

More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]], [[parvovirus B19]], [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]], [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]], [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]], [[Ross River virus]] and [[West Nile virus]].

ME/CFS doctors normally employ antibody tests (which measure the immune response to the infection) to detect these chronic infections, rather than PCR blood tests (which directly detect the presence of the pathogen in the blood). This is because in ME/CFS, infections may be widespread in the body tissues (and so may elicit an strong antibody response), but usually very little virus is found in the blood; thus PCR blood tests will often come back negative, even though there may be an ongoing low-level infection hidden in the tissues.

Enterovirus is commonly found in the body tissues of ME/CFS patients: [[List of enterovirus infection studies|numerous studies]] have directly detected enterovirus in muscle tissues, stomach tissues and brain tissues (whereas the [[Non-cytolytic enterovirus#Detection of non-cytolytic infections|levels of enterovirus in the blood are so low]] that the virus often cannot be detected by blood PCR). Unfortunately there has been less research interest in searching for the bodily location of herpesvirus infections in ME/CFS patients; so although chronically high antibody levels to enteroviruses and/or herpesviruses are often found in ME/CFS, the locations of the herpesviruses that may be eliciting this antibody response are less clear.

The enterovirus infections found in ME/CFS are known to involve the [[Non-cytolytic enterovirus|non-cytolytic form of this virus]], rather than just the regular productive form of the viral infection. Non-cytolytic enterovirus lives inside host cells on a long-term basis, as a low-level intracellular infection of naked viral RNA which does not kill the cell. Similarly, one theory postulates the herpesvirus infections found in ME/CFS could involve an [[Abortive infection theory of ME/CFS|abortive form of herpesvirus]] (which has some commonalities to non-cytolytic infection), rather than just regular productive or latent/reactivated virus.

Note that ME/CFS doctors may interpret antibody results differently to regular infectious disease specialists: the latter tend to ignore persistently elevated IgG antibody levels (provided IgM is low), dismissing these as just evidence of an infection you caught in the past which is now dormant; whereas ME/CFS doctors may view chronic elevated IgG as evidence of an ongoing low-level infection located somewhere in the body tissues.

In the following sections, the testing protocols employed by leading ME/CFS doctors are detailed for each ME/CFS-associated virus and bacterium.
===== Coxsackievirus B and echovirus testing =====
[[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackievirus B]] and [[echovirus]] have been linked to ME/CFS in [[List of enterovirus infection studies|over 30 studies]]. There are 6 coxsackievirus B (CVB) serotypes and 32 echovirus (EV) serotypes. All are part of the [[enterovirus]] genus. Enterovirus expert [[John Chia|Dr John Chia]] says that the most common enterovirus serotypes found in his ME/CFS patients are CVB3 and CVB4 first and foremost, then CVB2, EV6, EV7 and EV9, and then much less EV11.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://quixoticmeblog.blogspot.com/2014/10/dr-c-recommends-new-treatment-plan.html|title=Quixotic: My M.E. Blog: Dr. C Recommends New Treatment Plan|last=Calvin|first=Patrick W.|date=2014-10-12|website=Quixotic|access-date=2024-05-17}}</ref>

Testing for these enteroviruses presents some difficulties, as in ME/CFS, there are hardly any viruses in the blood. Rather the virus is mainly found as a chronic low-level [[Non-cytolytic enterovirus|non-cytolytic infection]] in tissue areas such as the stomach, muscles and brain. Dr Chia finds in whole blood samples, sensitive reverse transcription PCR blood tests are positive only about 30% of the time in patients with enterovirus ME/CFS.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://me-pedia.org/wiki/Non-cytolytic_enterovirus#Detection_of_non-cytolytic_infections|title=Non-cytolytic enterovirus}}</ref>

So antibody tests are used to detect enterovirus in ME/CFS patients rather than blood PCR tests. However, Dr Chia found that tests using the [[wikipedia:Plaque_reduction_neutralization_test|neutralisation]] method of antibody measurement can more reliably detect the chronic low-level enterovirus infections found in ME/CFS, compared to other antibody measurement techniques such as CFT, ELISA and IFA, which may not be sensitive enough (these techniques are fine for acute enterovirus infections, where there is plenty of virus, but detecting low-level chronic infections requires a test with more sensitivity). The CFT antibody test is particularly insensitive for chronic infections.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YSgcNSqssTI&t=27m54s|title=Invest in ME Conference 2009, Dr John Chia's Presentation|last=Chia|first=John|at=Timecode 27m 54s|quote=The typical antibody that the laboratory would do is called the complement fixation test, which is neither sensitive nor specific. That means if you get a positive test, it's worthless. And if you get a negative test, it's worthless. Well that's wonderful.}}</ref> Antibody tests via the neutralisation method however are only offered in a small number of pathology labs worldwide.

For his own ME/CFS patients, Dr Chia uses the ARUP Lab micro-neutralisation [https://ltd.aruplab.com/Tests/Pub/0060055 tests for coxsackievirus B] and [https://ltd.aruplab.com/Tests/Pub/0060053 echovirus]. These are the tests recommended for testing chronic infections by the [https://www.enterovirusfoundation.org/treatments-1/ Enterovirus Foundation]. Antibody titers of '''1:160''' to '''1:320''' and higher in the ARUP tests are good indicators of chronic infection, Dr Chia found.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.enterovirusfoundation.org/treatments-1|title=Diagnose & Treat|website=Enterovirus Foundation|language=en-US|access-date=2024-05-17}}</ref> In [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xz7CaxWtCUU&t=10m34s this video], Dr Chia explains how he calibrated the ARUP Lab tests to derive this 1:160 to 1:320 threshold for ME/CFS usage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xz7CaxWtCUU&t=10m34s|title=The International Symposium on Viruses In Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Post-Viral Fatigue. June 2008, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.|last=Chia|first=John|date=June 2008|at=Timecode 10m 34s}}</ref> Note that in such neutralisation tests, the levels of IgM and IgG antibodies are usually pooled together, so the test result reflects the combined IgM + IgG antibody level.

Other pathology labs which offer coxsackievirus B or echovirus neutralisation tests include: the [https://kgu.de Institute of Medical Virology], University Hospital Frankfurt am Main, Germany; the [https://www.pasteur.gr/en Hellenic Pasteur Institute] in Greece, the [https://torlak.rs/en/serological-diagnosis/ Torlak Institute of Virology] in Serbia, and [https://www.fleury.com.br/medico/exames/coxsackie-b-anticorpos-soro Fleury Lab] in Sao Paulo, Brazil.

===== Epstein-Barr virus testing =====
[[Epstein-Barr virus]] (EBV) has been linked to ME/CFS in [https://me-pedia.org/wiki/List_of_herpesvirus_infection_studies many studies]. There is a high 95% prevalence of EBV in the general adult population,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Epidemiology of Epstein-Barr virus infection and infectious mononucleosis in the United Kingdom|date=2020-06-12|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7291753/|journal=BMC Public Health|volume=20|pages=912|last=Kuri|first=Ashvin|last2=Jacobs|first2=Benjamin Meir|last3=Vickaryous|first3=Nikki|last4=Pakpoor|first4=Julia|last5=Middeldorp|first5=Jaap|last6=Giovannoni|first6=Gavin|last7=Dobson|first7=Ruth|doi=10.1186/s12889-020-09049-x|pmc=7291753|pmid=32532296|issn=1471-2458}}</ref> so most adults will have this virus in their system, but usually in a latent (ie, inactive) state. However, in ME/CFS patients this virus may exist in a reactivated state, or possibly as an abortive infection.

After [[mononucleosis]] (glandular fever), which is mostly caused by EBV, ME/CFS was found as a sequelae in 9% of cases.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence, risk and prognosis of acute and chronic fatigue syndromes and psychiatric disorders after glandular fever|date=1998-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9926075/|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science|volume=173|pages=475–481|last=White|first=P. D.|last2=Thomas|first2=J. M.|last3=Amess|first3=J.|last4=Crawford|first4=D. H.|last5=Grover|first5=S. A.|last6=Kangro|first6=H. O.|last7=Clare|first7=A. W.|doi=10.1192/bjp.173.6.475|pmid=9926075|issn=0007-1250}}</ref> Another study found that at 6, 12 and 24 months after mononucleosis, 13%, 7% and 4% of patients respectively met the [[Fukuda criteria]] for CFS,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after infectious mononucleosis in adolescents|date=2009-07|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19564299/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=124|issue=1|pages=189–193|last=Katz|first=Ben Z.|last2=Shiraishi|first2=Yukiko|last3=Mears|first3=Cynthia J.|last4=Binns|first4=Helen J.|last5=Taylor|first5=Renee|doi=10.1542/peds.2008-1879|pmc=2756827|pmid=19564299|issn=1098-4275}}</ref> indicating that in the first year or so, post-mononucleosis ME/CFS can clear up over time in some individuals, though it becomes a permanent illness in others.

[[A Martin Lerner|Dr Martin Lerner]] asserts that ME/CFS patients have a chronic EBV infection if there are high antibody levels in the EBV '''VCA IgM''' and/or '''EA IgG diffuse''' tests;<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Subset-directed antiviral treatment of 142 herpesvirus patients with chronic fatigue syndrome|date=2010-05-24|url=https://www.dovepress.com/subset-directed-antiviral-treatment-of-142-herpesvirus-patients-with-c-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-VAAT|journal=Virus Adaptation and Treatment|volume=2|pages=47–57|last=Lerner|first=A. Martin|last2=Beqaj|first2=Safedin|last3=Fitzgerald|first3=James T.|last4=Gill|first4=Ken|last5=Gill|first5=Carol|last6=Edington|first6=James|language=English|doi=10.2147/VAAT.S10695}}</ref> a study<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Investigation of Long COVID Prevalence and Its Relationship to Epstein-Barr Virus Reactivation|date=2021-06-17|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8233978/|journal=Pathogens|volume=10|issue=6|pages=763|last=Gold|first=Jeffrey E.|last2=Okyay|first2=Ramazan A.|last3=Licht|first3=Warren E.|last4=Hurley|first4=David J.|doi=10.3390/pathogens10060763|pmc=8233978|pmid=34204243|issn=2076-0817}}</ref> confirms that high antibody levels in either of these tests indicates EBV reactivation. Note that: EA = early antigen; VCA = virus capsid antigen (also denoted by CA), EBNA = Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen.

Note that the chronic EBV infections thought to exist in ME/CFS are not the same as those found in the rare and often fatal illness chronic active Epstein-Barr virus (CAEBV). In CAEBV, high EBV viral loads are found in the blood by PCR, whereas in ME/CFS, blood PCR tests are often negative for EBV.

===== HHV-6 testing =====
[[Human herpesvirus 6|Human herpes virus 6]] (HHV-6) has been linked to ME/CFS in [https://me-pedia.org/wiki/List_of_herpesvirus_infection_studies many studies]. HHV-6 is found in nearly 100% of adults, normally in a latent (inactive) state. However, ME/CFS patients may have a reactivated HHV-6 infection. Dr Martin Lerner asserts that if ME/CFS patients have both high HHV-6 '''IgM''' antibodies and high HHV-6 '''IgG''' antibodies, that indicates a reactivated HHV-6.<ref name=":0" /> The HHV-6 Foundation state that in an IFA antibody test, if HHV-6 '''IgG''' is highly elevated relative to healthy controls, it indicates a recent infection or a smoldering chronic reactivated infection.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hhv-6foundation.org/patients/hhv-6-testing-for-patients|title=HHV-6A/B Testing {{!}} HHV-6 Foundation {{!}} HHV-6 Disease Information for Patients, Clinicians, and Researchers {{!}} Apply for a Grant|website=hhv-6foundation.org|access-date=2024-05-17}}</ref>

===== Cytomegalovirus testing =====
[[Cytomegalovirus]] (CMV) has been linked to ME/CFS in [https://me-pedia.org/wiki/List_of_herpesvirus_infection_studies many studies]. CMV is found in around 58% of adults in the US,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=National prevalence estimates for cytomegalovirus IgM and IgG avidity and association between high IgM antibody titer and low IgG avidity|date=2011-11|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21918114/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=18|issue=11|pages=1895–1899|last=Dollard|first=Sheila C.|last2=Staras|first2=Stephanie A. S.|last3=Amin|first3=Minal M.|last4=Schmid|first4=D. Scott|last5=Cannon|first5=Michael J.|doi=10.1128/CVI.05228-11|pmc=3209034|pmid=21918114|issn=1556-679X}}</ref> normally in a latent inactive state. But ME/CFS patients may have a reactivated CMV infection. Dr Martin Lerner states that high levels of CMV '''IgG''' antibodies indicate a reactivated infection in ME/CFS. Dr Lerner says testing CMV '''IgM''' levels has no relevance in ME/CFS.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20190929163222/http://www.treatmentcenterforcfs.com/documents/MECFSTreatmentResourceGuideforPractitioners.pdf|title=ME/CFS Treatment Resource Guide for Practitioners|last=Lerner|first=A. Martin|quote=A diagnosis of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is made with an elevated CMV IgG titer. The IgM titer for CMV is inaccurate and insensitive. The higher the CMV IgG titer, the greater the viral load.}}</ref>

===== SARS-CoV-2 testing =====
Since the COVID pandemic, the [[SARS-CoV-2]] coronavirus has become a new addition to the set of viruses linked to ME/CFS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref> But no blood testing protocols for SARS-CoV-2 have yet been validated by ME/CFS researchers as a means to associate this virus to ME/CFS patients. However, patients whose ME/CFS appeared immediately after an acute COVID infection (as detected by a COVID lateral flow test or COVID PCR) will naturally assume their illness was triggered by SARS-CoV-2.

===== Varicella zoster virus testing =====
[[Varicella zoster virus]] (VZV) is found in 63% to 100% of the population.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Varicella zoster virus latency|date=2011-3|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3118253/|journal=Future virology|volume=6|issue=3|pages=341–355|last=Eshleman|first=Emily|last2=Shahzad|first2=Aamir|last3=Cohrs|first3=Randall J|pmc=3118253|pmid=21695042|issn=1746-0794}}</ref> VZV causes [[chickenpox]], and VZV can reactivate later in life to cause [[shingles]], a painful or itchy skin rash. Dr John Chia finds a very small percentage of ME/CFS cases are due to reactivated VZV, and this type of ME/CFS can be treated easily with antiviral drugs such as [[acyclovir]], which improve the ME/CFS after just a few weeks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/supported_browsers?next_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DNhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6m 58s|access-date=2024-05-17}}</ref>

The shingles rash caused by VZV is distinctive enough on its own to make a diagnosis of VZV reactivation. Even the appearance of just one or two shingles blisters can indicate VZV reactivation. '''PCR''' testing of the shingles blister contents can confirm VZV reactivation, if confirmation is needed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/chickenpox/php/laboratories/index.html|title=Laboratory Testing for Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV)|last=CDC|date=2024-05-10|website=Chickenpox (Varicella)|language=en-us|access-date=2024-05-18}}</ref>

VZV usually lives in a latent state in the nerve ganglia, but when it reactivates it typically leads to shingles; it has been hypothesized VZV reactivation in the nerve ganglia may cause ME/CFS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Does varicella-zoster virus infection of the peripheral ganglia cause Chronic Fatigue Syndrome?|date=2009-11|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19520522/|journal=Medical Hypotheses|volume=73|issue=5|pages=728–734|last=Shapiro|first=Judith S.|doi=10.1016/j.mehy.2009.04.043|pmid=19520522|issn=1532-2777}}</ref>

===== Parvovirus B19 testing =====
[[Parvovirus B19]] is a rarer cause of ME/CFS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection|date=2002-03|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11911112/|journal=The Journal of Rheumatology|volume=29|issue=3|pages=595–602|last=Kerr|first=Jonathan R.|last2=Bracewell|first2=Janice|last3=Laing|first3=Ian|last4=Mattey|first4=Derek L.|last5=Bernstein|first5=Robert M.|last6=Bruce|first6=Ian N.|last7=Tyrrell|first7=David A. J.|pmid=11911112|issn=0315-162X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Antibody to parvovirus B19 nonstructural protein is associated with chronic arthralgia in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis|date=2010-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20007355/|journal=The Journal of General Virology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=893–897|last=Kerr|first=Jonathan R.|last2=Gough|first2=John|last3=Richards|first3=Selwyn C. M.|last4=Main|first4=Janice|last5=Enlander|first5=Derek|last6=McCreary|first6=Michelle|last7=Komaroff|first7=Anthony L.|last8=Chia|first8=John K.|doi=10.1099/vir.0.017590-0|pmid=20007355|issn=1465-2099}}</ref> This virus is found in 61% of adults,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The prevalence of antibody to parvovirus B19 in hemophiliacs and in the general population|date=1996-07|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8837383/|journal=Zentralblatt Fur Bakteriologie: International Journal of Medical Microbiology|volume=284|issue=2-3|pages=232–240|last=Eis-Hübinger|first=A. M.|last2=Oldenburg|first2=J.|last3=Brackmann|first3=H. H.|last4=Matz|first4=B.|last5=Schneweis|first5=K. E.|doi=10.1016/s0934-8840(96)80098-3|pmid=8837383|issn=0934-8840}}</ref> normally in a latent (inactive) state. But ME/CFS due to parvovirus B19 involves an active infection. Dr John Chia diagnoses active parvovirus B19 infection when the '''PCR''' test is positive, or when there are high '''IgM''' antibodies.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Diverse Etiologies for Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|date=1 March 2003|url=https://academic.oup.com/cid/article-pdf/36/5/671/1244019/36-5-671.pdf|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=36|pages=671|last=Chia|first=John|last2=Chia|first2=Andrew}}</ref>

Note that an acute parvovirus B19 infection can cause false positive IgM antibody test results with blood tests for Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, HHV-6, herpes simplex and Borrelia burgdorferi and others.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Acute parvovirus B19 infection frequently causes false-positive results in Epstein-Barr virus- and herpes simplex virus-specific immunoglobulin M determinations done on the Liaison platform|date=2009-03|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19116304/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=16|issue=3|pages=372–375|last=Berth|first=Mario|last2=Bosmans|first2=Eugene|doi=10.1128/CVI.00380-08|pmc=2650871|pmid=19116304|issn=1556-679X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=False-Positive Results for Immunoglobulin M Serologic Results: Explanations and Examples|date=2013-03|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26619450/|journal=Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society|volume=2|issue=1|pages=87–90|last=Woods|first=Charles R.|doi=10.1093/jpids/pis133|pmid=26619450|issn=2048-7193}}</ref> This is because parvovirus B19 IgM antibodies cross-react with the IgM antibodies of these other pathogens.

===== Chlamydia pneumoniae testing =====
Dr John Chia finds the intracellular bacterium [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]] is an uncommon but treatable cause of ME/CFS, and says that most ME/CFS patients with active Chlamydia pneumoniae will have high '''IgG''' antibody levels, with IgM being negative; however some patients with this infection will have low IgG levels. Thus low IgG levels do not necessarily mean you do not have active Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|date=August 1999|url=https://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/29/2/452.full.pdf|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=29|last=Chia|first=John}}</ref>

74% of adults have antibodies to Chlamydia pneumoniae, and about 10% of adults have a persistent active infection, according to an Israeli study.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Prevalence of antibodies to Chlamydia pneumoniae in an Israeli population without clinical evidence of respiratory infection|date=2002-05|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11986341/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=5|pages=355–358|last=Ben-Yaakov|first=M.|last2=Eshel|first2=G.|last3=Zaksonski|first3=L.|last4=Lazarovich|first4=Z.|last5=Boldur|first5=I.|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.5.355|pmc=1769655|pmid=11986341|issn=0021-9746}}</ref>

=== Incubation periods ===
If the incubation period of the ME/CFS-triggering virus is known, this information can help identify the virus. The incubation period is the time between the initial exposure to the virus, and the appearance of its first acute symptoms (such as a sore throat, gastrointestinal upset or flu-like illness). Some ME/CFS patients may known where and when they contracted their virus, and in these cases, the incubation period may be calculated.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Incubation periods
!Pathogen
!Incubation period
!Ref
|-
|Coxsackievirus B
|2 to 6 days
|<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Coxsackie B virus|date=2024-03-07|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coxsackie_B_virus&oldid=1212347398|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|Echovirus
|2 to 10 days
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/echovirus-pathogen-safety-data-sheet.html|title=Pathogen Safety Data Sheets: Infectious Substances – Echovirus|last=Canada|first=Public Health Agency of|date=2001-09-17|website=www.canada.ca|access-date=2024-06-19}}</ref>
|-
|Epstein-Barr virus
|4 to 6 weeks
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/222040-clinical|title=Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) Infectious Mononucleosis (Mono) Clinical Presentation: History, Causes, Physical Examination|website=emedicine.medscape.com|access-date=2024-06-19}}</ref>
|-
|Cytomegalovirus
|4 to 6 weeks
|<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Acute Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Hepatitis in an Immunocompetent Adult|date=2020-07-16|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7387041/|journal=The American Journal of Case Reports|volume=21|pages=e925495–1–e925495-5|last=Zahid|first=Maleeha|last2=Ali|first2=Nisha|last3=Saad|first3=Muhammad|last4=Kelly|first4=Paul|last5=Ortiz|first5=Alfonso|doi=10.12659/AJCR.925495|pmc=7387041|pmid=32673293|issn=1941-5923}}</ref>
|-
|HHV-6
|1 to 2 weeks
|<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Update on Human Herpesvirus 6 Biology, Clinical Features, and Therapy|date=2005-1|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC544175/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=18|issue=1|pages=217–245|last=De Bolle|first=Leen|last2=Naesens|first2=Lieve|last3=De Clercq|first3=Erik|doi=10.1128/CMR.18.1.217-245.2005|pmc=544175|pmid=15653828|issn=0893-8512}}</ref>
|}
Note that HHV-6 is is almost always acquired during infancy, and is present in almost 100% of adults.

=== Learn more ===
[https://mecfsroadmap.altervista.org/#first-round-tests Viral testing section] of the [https://mecfsroadmap.altervista.org ME/CFS Roadmap for Testing and Treatment].

=== See also ===

* [[Enterovirus]]
* [[Non-cytolytic enterovirus]]
* [[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackievirus B]]
* [[Echovirus]]
* [[John Chia|Dr John Chia]]
* [[List of enterovirus infection studies]]
* [[Epstein-Barr virus]]
* [[Human herpesvirus 6|HHV-6]]
* [[Cytomegalovirus]]
* [[List of herpesvirus infection studies]]
* [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|SARS-CoV-2]]
* [[Varicella zoster virus]]
* [[Parvovirus B19]]
* [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]

=== References ===

Viral testing in ME/CFS

2026-04-20T23:38:26Z

Hip:Improved text

The viruses most commonly found in myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) patients as chronic infections are the two enteroviruses [[Coxsackie B virus|coxsackievirus B]] and [[echovirus]]; the three herpesviruses [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[HHV-6]] and [[cytomegalovirus]]; and the coronavirus [[SARS-CoV-2]]. These are the infections that ME/CFS doctors will typically test for. Usually ME/CFS patients will have chronic infections with one or more of these viruses.

More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]], [[parvovirus B19]], [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]], [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]], [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]], [[Ross River virus]] and [[West Nile virus]].

ME/CFS doctors normally employ antibody tests (which measure the immune response to the infection) in order to detect these chronic infections, rather than PCR blood tests (which directly detect the presence of the pathogen in the blood). This is because in ME/CFS, infections may be widespread in the body tissues (and so may elicit an antibody response), but usually very little virus is found in the blood; thus PCR blood tests will often come back negative, even though there may be an ongoing low-level infection in the tissues.

Enterovirus is commonly found in the tissues of ME/CFS patients: [[List of enterovirus infection studies|numerous studies]] have directly detected enterovirus in muscle, stomach and brain tissue biopsies (whereas the [[Non-cytolytic enterovirus#Detection of non-cytolytic infections|levels of enterovirus in the blood are so low]] that the virus often cannot be detected by blood PCR). Unfortunately there has been less research interest in looking for herpesviruses in ME/CFS patient tissues; so although chronically high antibody levels to enteroviruses and/or herpesviruses are often found in ME/CFS, the bodily locations of the herpesvirus infections that may be eliciting this antibody response are less clear.

The enterovirus infections found in ME/CFS are known to involve the [[Non-cytolytic enterovirus|non-cytolytic form of this virus]], rather than just the regular productive form of the viral infection. Non-cytolytic enterovirus lives inside host cells on a long-term basis, as an intracellular infection of naked viral RNA which does not kill the cell. Similarly, one theory postulates the herpesvirus infections found in ME/CFS could involve an [[Abortive infection theory of ME/CFS|abortive form of herpesvirus]] (which has some commonalities to non-cytolytic infection), rather than just regular productive or latent/reactivated virus.

Note that ME/CFS doctors may interpret antibody results differently to regular infectious disease specialists: the latter tend to ignore chronic highly elevated IgG, dismissing this as just evidence of a past and now dormant infection (provided IgM is low); whereas ME/CFS doctors may view chronic highly elevated IgG as evidence of an ongoing low-level infection hidden in the body tissues.

In the following sections, the testing protocols employed by leading ME/CFS doctors are detailed for each ME/CFS-associated virus and bacterium.
===== Coxsackievirus B and echovirus testing =====
[[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackievirus B]] and [[echovirus]] have been linked to ME/CFS in [[List of enterovirus infection studies|over 30 studies]]. There are 6 coxsackievirus B (CVB) serotypes and 32 echovirus (EV) serotypes. All are part of the [[enterovirus]] genus. Enterovirus expert [[John Chia|Dr John Chia]] says that the most common enterovirus serotypes found in his ME/CFS patients are CVB3 and CVB4 first and foremost, then CVB2, EV6, EV7 and EV9, and then much less EV11.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://quixoticmeblog.blogspot.com/2014/10/dr-c-recommends-new-treatment-plan.html|title=Quixotic: My M.E. Blog: Dr. C Recommends New Treatment Plan|last=Calvin|first=Patrick W.|date=2014-10-12|website=Quixotic|access-date=2024-05-17}}</ref>

Testing for these enteroviruses presents some difficulties, as in ME/CFS, there are hardly any viruses in the blood. Rather the virus is mainly found as a chronic low-level [[Non-cytolytic enterovirus|non-cytolytic infection]] in tissue areas such as the stomach, muscles and brain. Dr Chia finds in whole blood samples, sensitive reverse transcription PCR blood tests are positive only about 30% of the time in patients with enterovirus ME/CFS.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://me-pedia.org/wiki/Non-cytolytic_enterovirus#Detection_of_non-cytolytic_infections|title=Non-cytolytic enterovirus}}</ref>

So antibody tests are used to detect enterovirus in ME/CFS patients rather than blood PCR tests. However, Dr Chia found that tests using the [[wikipedia:Plaque_reduction_neutralization_test|neutralisation]] method of antibody measurement can more reliably detect the chronic low-level enterovirus infections found in ME/CFS, compared to other antibody measurement techniques such as CFT, ELISA and IFA, which may not be sensitive enough (these techniques are fine for acute enterovirus infections, where there is plenty of virus, but detecting low-level chronic infections requires a test with more sensitivity). The CFT antibody test is particularly insensitive for chronic infections.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YSgcNSqssTI&t=27m54s|title=Invest in ME Conference 2009, Dr John Chia's Presentation|last=Chia|first=John|at=Timecode 27m 54s|quote=The typical antibody that the laboratory would do is called the complement fixation test, which is neither sensitive nor specific. That means if you get a positive test, it's worthless. And if you get a negative test, it's worthless. Well that's wonderful.}}</ref> Antibody tests via the neutralisation method however are only offered in a small number of pathology labs worldwide.

For his own ME/CFS patients, Dr Chia uses the ARUP Lab micro-neutralisation [https://ltd.aruplab.com/Tests/Pub/0060055 tests for coxsackievirus B] and [https://ltd.aruplab.com/Tests/Pub/0060053 echovirus]. These are the tests recommended for testing chronic infections by the [https://www.enterovirusfoundation.org/treatments-1/ Enterovirus Foundation]. Antibody titers of '''1:160''' to '''1:320''' and higher in the ARUP tests are good indicators of chronic infection, Dr Chia found.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.enterovirusfoundation.org/treatments-1|title=Diagnose & Treat|website=Enterovirus Foundation|language=en-US|access-date=2024-05-17}}</ref> In [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xz7CaxWtCUU&t=10m34s this video], Dr Chia explains how he calibrated the ARUP Lab tests to derive this 1:160 to 1:320 threshold for ME/CFS usage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xz7CaxWtCUU&t=10m34s|title=The International Symposium on Viruses In Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Post-Viral Fatigue. June 2008, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.|last=Chia|first=John|date=June 2008|at=Timecode 10m 34s}}</ref> Note that in such neutralisation tests, the levels of IgM and IgG antibodies are usually pooled together, so the test result reflects the combined IgM + IgG antibody level.

Other pathology labs which offer coxsackievirus B or echovirus neutralisation tests include: the [https://kgu.de Institute of Medical Virology], University Hospital Frankfurt am Main, Germany; the [https://www.pasteur.gr/en Hellenic Pasteur Institute] in Greece, the [https://torlak.rs/en/serological-diagnosis/ Torlak Institute of Virology] in Serbia, and [https://www.fleury.com.br/medico/exames/coxsackie-b-anticorpos-soro Fleury Lab] in Sao Paulo, Brazil.

===== Epstein-Barr virus testing =====
[[Epstein-Barr virus]] (EBV) has been linked to ME/CFS in [https://me-pedia.org/wiki/List_of_herpesvirus_infection_studies many studies]. There is a high 95% prevalence of EBV in the general adult population,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Epidemiology of Epstein-Barr virus infection and infectious mononucleosis in the United Kingdom|date=2020-06-12|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7291753/|journal=BMC Public Health|volume=20|pages=912|last=Kuri|first=Ashvin|last2=Jacobs|first2=Benjamin Meir|last3=Vickaryous|first3=Nikki|last4=Pakpoor|first4=Julia|last5=Middeldorp|first5=Jaap|last6=Giovannoni|first6=Gavin|last7=Dobson|first7=Ruth|doi=10.1186/s12889-020-09049-x|pmc=7291753|pmid=32532296|issn=1471-2458}}</ref> so most adults will have this virus in their system, but usually in a latent (inactive) state. However, in ME/CFS patients this virus may exist in a reactivated state.

After [[mononucleosis]] (glandular fever), which is mostly caused by EBV, ME/CFS was found as a sequelae in 9% of cases.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence, risk and prognosis of acute and chronic fatigue syndromes and psychiatric disorders after glandular fever|date=1998-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9926075/|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science|volume=173|pages=475–481|last=White|first=P. D.|last2=Thomas|first2=J. M.|last3=Amess|first3=J.|last4=Crawford|first4=D. H.|last5=Grover|first5=S. A.|last6=Kangro|first6=H. O.|last7=Clare|first7=A. W.|doi=10.1192/bjp.173.6.475|pmid=9926075|issn=0007-1250}}</ref> Another study found that at 6, 12 and 24 months after mononucleosis, 13%, 7% and 4% of patients respectively met the [[Fukuda criteria]] for CFS,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after infectious mononucleosis in adolescents|date=2009-07|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19564299/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=124|issue=1|pages=189–193|last=Katz|first=Ben Z.|last2=Shiraishi|first2=Yukiko|last3=Mears|first3=Cynthia J.|last4=Binns|first4=Helen J.|last5=Taylor|first5=Renee|doi=10.1542/peds.2008-1879|pmc=2756827|pmid=19564299|issn=1098-4275}}</ref> indicating that in the first year or so, post-mononucleosis ME/CFS can clear up over time in some individuals, though it becomes a permanent illness in others.

[[A Martin Lerner|Dr Martin Lerner]] asserts that ME/CFS patients have a chronic EBV infection if there are high antibody levels in the EBV '''VCA IgM''' and/or '''EA IgG diffuse''' tests;<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Subset-directed antiviral treatment of 142 herpesvirus patients with chronic fatigue syndrome|date=2010-05-24|url=https://www.dovepress.com/subset-directed-antiviral-treatment-of-142-herpesvirus-patients-with-c-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-VAAT|journal=Virus Adaptation and Treatment|volume=2|pages=47–57|last=Lerner|first=A. Martin|last2=Beqaj|first2=Safedin|last3=Fitzgerald|first3=James T.|last4=Gill|first4=Ken|last5=Gill|first5=Carol|last6=Edington|first6=James|language=English|doi=10.2147/VAAT.S10695}}</ref> a study<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Investigation of Long COVID Prevalence and Its Relationship to Epstein-Barr Virus Reactivation|date=2021-06-17|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8233978/|journal=Pathogens|volume=10|issue=6|pages=763|last=Gold|first=Jeffrey E.|last2=Okyay|first2=Ramazan A.|last3=Licht|first3=Warren E.|last4=Hurley|first4=David J.|doi=10.3390/pathogens10060763|pmc=8233978|pmid=34204243|issn=2076-0817}}</ref> confirms that high antibody levels in either of these tests indicates EBV reactivation. Note that: EA = early antigen; VCA = virus capsid antigen (also denoted by CA), EBNA = Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen.

Note that the chronic EBV infections thought to exist in ME/CFS are not the same as those found in the rare and often fatal illness chronic active Epstein-Barr virus (CAEBV). In CAEBV, high EBV viral loads are found in the blood by PCR, whereas in ME/CFS, blood PCR tests are often negative for EBV.

===== HHV-6 testing =====
[[Human herpesvirus 6|Human herpes virus 6]] (HHV-6) has been linked to ME/CFS in [https://me-pedia.org/wiki/List_of_herpesvirus_infection_studies many studies]. HHV-6 is found in nearly 100% of adults, normally in a latent (inactive) state. However, ME/CFS patients may have a reactivated HHV-6 infection. Dr Martin Lerner asserts that if ME/CFS patients have both high HHV-6 '''IgM''' antibodies and high HHV-6 '''IgG''' antibodies, that indicates a reactivated HHV-6.<ref name=":0" /> The HHV-6 Foundation state that in an IFA antibody test, if HHV-6 '''IgG''' is highly elevated relative to healthy controls, it indicates a recent infection or a smoldering chronic reactivated infection.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hhv-6foundation.org/patients/hhv-6-testing-for-patients|title=HHV-6A/B Testing {{!}} HHV-6 Foundation {{!}} HHV-6 Disease Information for Patients, Clinicians, and Researchers {{!}} Apply for a Grant|website=hhv-6foundation.org|access-date=2024-05-17}}</ref>

===== Cytomegalovirus testing =====
[[Cytomegalovirus]] (CMV) has been linked to ME/CFS in [https://me-pedia.org/wiki/List_of_herpesvirus_infection_studies many studies]. CMV is found in around 58% of adults in the US,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=National prevalence estimates for cytomegalovirus IgM and IgG avidity and association between high IgM antibody titer and low IgG avidity|date=2011-11|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21918114/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=18|issue=11|pages=1895–1899|last=Dollard|first=Sheila C.|last2=Staras|first2=Stephanie A. S.|last3=Amin|first3=Minal M.|last4=Schmid|first4=D. Scott|last5=Cannon|first5=Michael J.|doi=10.1128/CVI.05228-11|pmc=3209034|pmid=21918114|issn=1556-679X}}</ref> normally in a latent inactive state. But ME/CFS patients may have a reactivated CMV infection. Dr Martin Lerner states that high levels of CMV '''IgG''' antibodies indicate a reactivated infection in ME/CFS. Dr Lerner says testing CMV '''IgM''' levels has no relevance in ME/CFS.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20190929163222/http://www.treatmentcenterforcfs.com/documents/MECFSTreatmentResourceGuideforPractitioners.pdf|title=ME/CFS Treatment Resource Guide for Practitioners|last=Lerner|first=A. Martin|quote=A diagnosis of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is made with an elevated CMV IgG titer. The IgM titer for CMV is inaccurate and insensitive. The higher the CMV IgG titer, the greater the viral load.}}</ref>

===== SARS-CoV-2 testing =====
Since the COVID pandemic, the [[SARS-CoV-2]] coronavirus has become a new addition to the set of viruses linked to ME/CFS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref> But no blood testing protocols for SARS-CoV-2 have yet been validated by ME/CFS researchers as a means to associate this virus to ME/CFS patients. However, patients whose ME/CFS appeared immediately after an acute COVID infection (as detected by a COVID lateral flow test or COVID PCR) will naturally assume their illness was triggered by SARS-CoV-2.

===== Varicella zoster virus testing =====
[[Varicella zoster virus]] (VZV) is found in 63% to 100% of the population.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Varicella zoster virus latency|date=2011-3|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3118253/|journal=Future virology|volume=6|issue=3|pages=341–355|last=Eshleman|first=Emily|last2=Shahzad|first2=Aamir|last3=Cohrs|first3=Randall J|pmc=3118253|pmid=21695042|issn=1746-0794}}</ref> VZV causes [[chickenpox]], and VZV can reactivate later in life to cause [[shingles]], a painful or itchy skin rash. Dr John Chia finds a very small percentage of ME/CFS cases are due to reactivated VZV, and this type of ME/CFS can be treated easily with antiviral drugs such as [[acyclovir]], which improve the ME/CFS after just a few weeks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/supported_browsers?next_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DNhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6m 58s|access-date=2024-05-17}}</ref>

The shingles rash caused by VZV is distinctive enough on its own to make a diagnosis of VZV reactivation. Even the appearance of just one or two shingles blisters can indicate VZV reactivation. '''PCR''' testing of the shingles blister contents can confirm VZV reactivation, if confirmation is needed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/chickenpox/php/laboratories/index.html|title=Laboratory Testing for Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV)|last=CDC|date=2024-05-10|website=Chickenpox (Varicella)|language=en-us|access-date=2024-05-18}}</ref>

VZV usually lives in a latent state in the nerve ganglia, but when it reactivates it typically leads to shingles; it has been hypothesized VZV reactivation in the nerve ganglia may cause ME/CFS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Does varicella-zoster virus infection of the peripheral ganglia cause Chronic Fatigue Syndrome?|date=2009-11|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19520522/|journal=Medical Hypotheses|volume=73|issue=5|pages=728–734|last=Shapiro|first=Judith S.|doi=10.1016/j.mehy.2009.04.043|pmid=19520522|issn=1532-2777}}</ref>

===== Parvovirus B19 testing =====
[[Parvovirus B19]] is a rarer cause of ME/CFS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection|date=2002-03|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11911112/|journal=The Journal of Rheumatology|volume=29|issue=3|pages=595–602|last=Kerr|first=Jonathan R.|last2=Bracewell|first2=Janice|last3=Laing|first3=Ian|last4=Mattey|first4=Derek L.|last5=Bernstein|first5=Robert M.|last6=Bruce|first6=Ian N.|last7=Tyrrell|first7=David A. J.|pmid=11911112|issn=0315-162X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Antibody to parvovirus B19 nonstructural protein is associated with chronic arthralgia in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis|date=2010-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20007355/|journal=The Journal of General Virology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=893–897|last=Kerr|first=Jonathan R.|last2=Gough|first2=John|last3=Richards|first3=Selwyn C. M.|last4=Main|first4=Janice|last5=Enlander|first5=Derek|last6=McCreary|first6=Michelle|last7=Komaroff|first7=Anthony L.|last8=Chia|first8=John K.|doi=10.1099/vir.0.017590-0|pmid=20007355|issn=1465-2099}}</ref> This virus is found in 61% of adults,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The prevalence of antibody to parvovirus B19 in hemophiliacs and in the general population|date=1996-07|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8837383/|journal=Zentralblatt Fur Bakteriologie: International Journal of Medical Microbiology|volume=284|issue=2-3|pages=232–240|last=Eis-Hübinger|first=A. M.|last2=Oldenburg|first2=J.|last3=Brackmann|first3=H. H.|last4=Matz|first4=B.|last5=Schneweis|first5=K. E.|doi=10.1016/s0934-8840(96)80098-3|pmid=8837383|issn=0934-8840}}</ref> normally in a latent (inactive) state. But ME/CFS due to parvovirus B19 involves an active infection. Dr John Chia diagnoses active parvovirus B19 infection when the '''PCR''' test is positive, or when there are high '''IgM''' antibodies.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Diverse Etiologies for Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|date=1 March 2003|url=https://academic.oup.com/cid/article-pdf/36/5/671/1244019/36-5-671.pdf|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=36|pages=671|last=Chia|first=John|last2=Chia|first2=Andrew}}</ref>

Note that an acute parvovirus B19 infection can cause false positive IgM antibody test results with blood tests for Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, HHV-6, herpes simplex and Borrelia burgdorferi and others.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Acute parvovirus B19 infection frequently causes false-positive results in Epstein-Barr virus- and herpes simplex virus-specific immunoglobulin M determinations done on the Liaison platform|date=2009-03|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19116304/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=16|issue=3|pages=372–375|last=Berth|first=Mario|last2=Bosmans|first2=Eugene|doi=10.1128/CVI.00380-08|pmc=2650871|pmid=19116304|issn=1556-679X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=False-Positive Results for Immunoglobulin M Serologic Results: Explanations and Examples|date=2013-03|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26619450/|journal=Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society|volume=2|issue=1|pages=87–90|last=Woods|first=Charles R.|doi=10.1093/jpids/pis133|pmid=26619450|issn=2048-7193}}</ref> This is because parvovirus B19 IgM antibodies cross-react with the IgM antibodies of these other pathogens.

===== Chlamydia pneumoniae testing =====
Dr John Chia finds the intracellular bacterium [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]] is an uncommon but treatable cause of ME/CFS, and says that most ME/CFS patients with active Chlamydia pneumoniae will have high '''IgG''' antibody levels, with IgM being negative; however some patients with this infection will have low IgG levels. Thus low IgG levels do not necessarily mean you do not have active Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|date=August 1999|url=https://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/29/2/452.full.pdf|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=29|last=Chia|first=John}}</ref>

74% of adults have antibodies to Chlamydia pneumoniae, and about 10% of adults have a persistent active infection, according to an Israeli study.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Prevalence of antibodies to Chlamydia pneumoniae in an Israeli population without clinical evidence of respiratory infection|date=2002-05|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11986341/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=5|pages=355–358|last=Ben-Yaakov|first=M.|last2=Eshel|first2=G.|last3=Zaksonski|first3=L.|last4=Lazarovich|first4=Z.|last5=Boldur|first5=I.|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.5.355|pmc=1769655|pmid=11986341|issn=0021-9746}}</ref>

=== Incubation periods ===
If the incubation period of the ME/CFS-triggering virus is known, this information can help identify the virus. The incubation period is the time between the initial exposure to the virus, and the appearance of its first acute symptoms (such as a sore throat, gastrointestinal upset or flu-like illness). Some ME/CFS patients may known where and when they contracted their virus, and in these cases, the incubation period may be calculated.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Incubation periods
!Pathogen
!Incubation period
!Ref
|-
|Coxsackievirus B
|2 to 6 days
|<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Coxsackie B virus|date=2024-03-07|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coxsackie_B_virus&oldid=1212347398|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|Echovirus
|2 to 10 days
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/echovirus-pathogen-safety-data-sheet.html|title=Pathogen Safety Data Sheets: Infectious Substances – Echovirus|last=Canada|first=Public Health Agency of|date=2001-09-17|website=www.canada.ca|access-date=2024-06-19}}</ref>
|-
|Epstein-Barr virus
|4 to 6 weeks
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/222040-clinical|title=Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) Infectious Mononucleosis (Mono) Clinical Presentation: History, Causes, Physical Examination|website=emedicine.medscape.com|access-date=2024-06-19}}</ref>
|-
|Cytomegalovirus
|4 to 6 weeks
|<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Acute Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Hepatitis in an Immunocompetent Adult|date=2020-07-16|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7387041/|journal=The American Journal of Case Reports|volume=21|pages=e925495–1–e925495-5|last=Zahid|first=Maleeha|last2=Ali|first2=Nisha|last3=Saad|first3=Muhammad|last4=Kelly|first4=Paul|last5=Ortiz|first5=Alfonso|doi=10.12659/AJCR.925495|pmc=7387041|pmid=32673293|issn=1941-5923}}</ref>
|-
|HHV-6
|1 to 2 weeks
|<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Update on Human Herpesvirus 6 Biology, Clinical Features, and Therapy|date=2005-1|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC544175/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=18|issue=1|pages=217–245|last=De Bolle|first=Leen|last2=Naesens|first2=Lieve|last3=De Clercq|first3=Erik|doi=10.1128/CMR.18.1.217-245.2005|pmc=544175|pmid=15653828|issn=0893-8512}}</ref>
|}
Note that HHV-6 is is almost always acquired during infancy, and is present in almost 100% of adults.

=== Learn more ===
[https://mecfsroadmap.altervista.org/#first-round-tests Viral testing section] of the [https://mecfsroadmap.altervista.org ME/CFS Roadmap for Testing and Treatment].

=== See also ===

* [[Enterovirus]]
* [[Non-cytolytic enterovirus]]
* [[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackievirus B]]
* [[Echovirus]]
* [[John Chia|Dr John Chia]]
* [[List of enterovirus infection studies]]
* [[Epstein-Barr virus]]
* [[Human herpesvirus 6|HHV-6]]
* [[Cytomegalovirus]]
* [[List of herpesvirus infection studies]]
* [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|SARS-CoV-2]]
* [[Varicella zoster virus]]
* [[Parvovirus B19]]
* [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]

=== References ===

Enterovirus

2026-04-20T17:12:18Z

Hip:Info about CDC failure to detect enterovirus in ME/CFS

'''Enterovirus''' is a genus of positive-sensed single-stranded RNA viruses. Viruses in the enterovirus genus include [[Coxsackie A virus|coxsackievirus A]], [[Coxsackie B virus|coxsackievirus B]], [[echovirus]], [[poliovirus]], rhinovirus, and many others.<ref name="Yin">{{Cite book | last = Yin-Murphy | first = Marguerite | last2 = Almond | first2 = Jeffrey W. | date = 1996|editor-last = Baron|editor-first = Samuel | title = Picornaviruses |url =http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7687/|location=Galveston (TX)| publisher = University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston|isbn=978-0-9631172-1-2|pmid=21413259}}</ref> Person-to-person transmission of enteroviruses occurs through fecal-oral and oral-oral routes.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1134374-overview#a5 | title = Dermatologic Manifestations of Enteroviral Infections (Medscape article) | last = Alsina-Gibert | first = Mercè | date = | website = Medscape |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=|quote=Enteroviruses spread from person to person by either oral-oral or fecal-oral routes.}}</ref>
[[File:Enterovirus Virion.jpg|thumb|305x305px|Enterovirus is a non-enveloped icosahedral-shaped positive single-stranded RNA virus made from four proteins named VP1 to VP4 (VP4 located in the interior).]]
Enteroviruses are responsible for a range of acute infections and illnesses. They cause about 10 to 15 million infections and tens of thousands of hospitalizations each year in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.cdc.gov/non-polio-enterovirus/index.html | title = Non-Polio Enterovirus | last = | first = | date = |website=CDC Website|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=|quote=Non-Polio Enterovirus. Non-polio enteroviruses are very common. They cause about 10 to 15 million infections and tens of thousands of hospitalizations each year in the United States. Most people who get infected with these viruses do not get sick or they only have mild illness, like the common cold.}}</ref> But acute enterovirus [[infection]]s can often be mild (like a common cold) or asymptomatic when contracted.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/217146-overview | title = Enteroviruses (Medscape article) | last = Schwartz | first = Robert A | date = | website = Medscape |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=|quote=More than 90% of infections caused by nonpolio entero viruses are asymptomatic or result only in an undifferentiated febrile illness.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url = https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/216564-overview#a5 | title = Echovirus Infection | last = Choudhary | first = Madhu Chhanda | date = | website = Medscape |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=|quote=More than 90% of echoviral infections are asymptomatic.}}</ref>

Though normally only capable of acute infections, under certain circumstances enteroviruses can create chronic infections, and ongoing enterovirus infections have been found in [[ME/CFS]] and several other chronic illnesses in including dilated cardiomyopathy, and type 1 [[diabetes]]. Some researchers posit that such persistent enterovirus infections may be a cause of these diseases.

== Enterovirus species ==
In the new [https://www.picornaviridae.com/sg3/enterovirus/enterovirus.htm classification system], the enterovirus genus contains 15 species of enterovirus named enterovirus A to L and rhinovirus A to C. Enterovirus A to D infect humans, and are the enterovirus species of clinical significance. The [[enterovirus B]] species contains the coxsackievirus B and echovirus serotypes which are associated with ME/CFS.
* Enterovirus A — contains some of the coxsackievirus A serotypes as well as enterovirus A71 (also written enterovirus 71).
* [[Enterovirus B]] — includes the six coxsackievirus B and 28 echovirus serotypes, as well as coxsackievirus A9.
* Enterovirus C — contains further coxsackievirus A serotypes as well as the three [[Poliovirus|polioviruses]].
* Enterovirus D — contains enterovirus D68, the virus recently linked to causing childhood [[paralysis]].
* Enterovirus E to L — do not infect humans.
* Rhinovirus A to C — rhinovirus is a common cold virus.
The enterovirus genus is part of the [[picornavirus]] family (Picornaviridae).

== Enterovirus serotypes ==

=== Poliovirus ===
{{Main article | page_name = Poliovirus}}
Poliovirus is the cause of the paralytic disease known as [[poliomyelitis]].<ref>[http://www.virology.ws/2004/08/18/poliovirus/ Poliovirus - Virology Blog]</ref> A study of poliovirus found that polio infection rapidly decreases cellular [[oxygen]] consumption (and thus energy production through [[cellular respiration]]) by inhibiting [[succinate dehydrogenase]] and blocking [[mitochondrion|mitochondrial]] electron transport.<ref>{{Cite journal| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10814509 | title = Poliovirus Induces an Early Impairment of Mitochondrial Function by Inhibiting Succinate Dehydrogenase Activity | last = Koundouris | first = A | date = May 2000|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications|volume=271 | pages = 610-4|via=}}</ref>

=== Coxsackievirus ===
{{Main article | page_name =Coxsackie virus}}

=== Coxsackie A virus ===
{{Main article | page_name =Coxsackie A virus}}

=== Coxsackie B virus ===
{{Main article | page_name =Coxsackie B virus}}

[[Coxsackie B]] (also written coxsackievirus B) is a group of six types of [[enterovirus]], causing symptoms ranging from gastrointestinal distress to pericarditis and myocarditis. Symptoms of infection with viruses in the Coxsackie B grouping include fever, [[headache]], [[sore throat]], gastrointestinal distress, extreme [[fatigue]] as well as [[Chest pain|chest]] and [[muscle pain]]. It can also lead to [[muscle spasm]] in arms and legs. Numerous studies have found evidence of persistent infection of Coxsackie B in the [[blood]], muscle, [[gut]] and brain in a subset of patients with diagnosed with myalgic encephalomyelitis and chronic fatigue syndrome.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Landay | first = AL | date = September 1991 | title = Chronic fatigue syndrome: clinical condition associated with immune activation | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1679864|journal=Lancet|volume= | pages = |via=}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | date = November 2005 | title = The role of enterovirus in chronic fatigue syndrome | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1770761/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume= | pages = |via=}}</ref><ref name="Fegan1983">{{Citation | last1 = Fegan | first1 = KG | author-link1 = KG Fegan | last2 = Behan | first2 = PO | authorlink2 = Peter Behan | last3 = Bell | first3 = EJ | authorlink3 = Eleanor Bell | title = Myalgic encephalomyelitis — report of an epidemic | journal = J R Coll Gen Pract | volume = 33 | issue = 251| pages = 335–337 | date = Jun 1, 1983 | pmid = 6310104 | url = http://bjgp.org/content/33/251/335 }}</ref><ref name="Calder1984">{{Citation | last1 = Calder | first1 = BD | author-link1 = BD Calder | last2 = Warnock | first2 = PJ | authorlink2 = PJ Warnock | title = Coxsackie B infection in a Scottish general practice | journal = Jrnl Royal Coll Gen Pract | volume = 34 | issue = 258| pages = 15–19 | date = Jan 1984 | pmid = 6319691 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1959663/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Yousef | first = G.E. | date = January 1988 | title = Chronic Enterovirus Infection In Patients With Postviral Fatigue Synfrome | url =https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673688927225|journal=The Lancet|volume= | pages = |via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Nairn | first = C | date = August 1995 | title = Comparison of coxsackie B neutralisation and enteroviral PCR in chronic fatigue patients |url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7595406|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume= | pages = |via=}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | date = November 2005 | title = The role of enterovirus in chronic fatigue syndrome | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1770761/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume= | pages = |via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Gow | first = JW | date = | title = Enteroviral RNA sequences detected by polymerase chain reaction in muscle of patients with postviral fatigue syndrome | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1850635|journal=British Medical Journal|volume= | pages = |via=}}</ref>

=== Echovirus ===
{{Main article | page_name =Echovirus}}There are 32 human echoviruses. Like coxsackievirus B, these viruses can cause chronic low-level infections, and are associated with myalgic encephalomyelitis.

==EV-D68==
EV-D68 is a non-polio enterovirus, which has been linked to acute flaccid myelitis, a rare but serious neurological illness usually affecting children.<ref name="evd68-CDC2020">{{Cite web | url = https://www.cdc.gov/non-polio-enterovirus/about/ev-d68.html | title = Non-Polio Enterovirus {{!}} About EV-D68 {{!}} Enterovirus D68 | last = Centers for Disease Control | first = | authorlink = Centers for Disease Control | date = 2020-08-12 | website = [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|language=en-us|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=2020-08-18}}</ref>
== Acute enterovirus infections ==
Enteroviruses can infect a wide array of organs in the body, and thus a given enterovirus serotype may cause a variety of different acute infections, and its symptoms in one person can be quite different to the symptoms it creates in the next person.

During the acute phase of infection, enteroviruses may produce one or more of the following symptoms and illnesses:<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IWxqftHYvqU&t=1m24s | title = Enteroviruses and Myalgic Encephalomyelitis / Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: An Update on Pathogenesis. Presentation at the Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2015. |at=1:24 | last = Chia | first = John | date = 2015 | website = |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=|quote= | authorlink = }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.enterovirusfoundation.org/the-symptoms/ | title = Symptoms and Signs of an Enterovirus Infection. | last = | first = | date = |website=Enterovirus Foundation|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.cdc.gov/non-polio-enterovirus/about/symptoms.html | title = Non-Polio Enterovirus: Symptoms. | last = | first = | date = |website=CDC Website|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>
* '''Respiratory''' — [[Sinusitis|rhinosinusitis]], [[sore throat|pharyngitis]], bronchitis, bronchiolitis, pleurisy, pneumonia.
* '''Gastrointestinal''' — [[vomiting]], [[diarrhea]], gastritis, terminal ileitis, colitis, hepatitis, pancreatitis, [[GERD]], functional dyspepsia.
* '''Immune manifestations''' — prolonged [[Fever]]s (102 to 104°F, or 39 to 40°C) lasting 3 weeks, leukopenia, lymphopenia, bone marrow failure.
* '''Central nervous system''' — meningitis, [[encephalitis]], myelitis, [[Guillain-Barré syndrome]], epidemic [[vertigo]] and deafness.
* '''Cardiovascular''' — myocarditis, pericarditis, myopericarditis, endocarditis.
* '''Musculoskeletal''' — acute myositis, rhabdomyolysis, [[arthralgia]] and [[arthritis]], pleurodynia (Bornholm disease).
* '''Genito-urinary tract''' — epididymitis, orchitis, salpingitis (fallopian tube inflammation), prostatitis.
* '''Skin''' — vesicles, [[skin rash#maculopapular|maculopapular rash]], petechiae, [[urticaria]], vasculitis.
* '''Oral''' — enanthem (rash on the mucous membranes), herpangina, tongue and mouth ulcers.
* '''Other illnesses''' — hand, foot, and mouth disease, hemorrhagic conjunctivitis, [[poliomyelitis]], inflammatory muscle disease.

Note that enterovirus is able to mimic a [[chickenpox]] rash: if a patient previously had chickenpox, and then develops a [[flu-like illness]] with a chickenpox-like [[rash]], that is likely due to enterovirus. But an enterovirus rash can also look like measles, German measles (rubella) and can look like [[hives]].<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WAZ4HiSC_sM&t=7m29s | title = Enterovirus Infection in ME/CFS. Presentation at the Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2010. | last = Chia | first = John | date = 2010 | website = |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=|quote=Enterovirus is the greatest mimicker of chickenpox. If the patient already had chickenpox before and they then develop flu-like illness with chickenpox-like rashes that's enterovirus until proven otherwise. But the rash could look like measles, German measles, it could look like hives. | authorlink = }}</ref> Enteroviruses are the only group of viruses able to routinely infect the [[muscle]]s, [[heart]] and [[central nervous system]]. Other viruses can infect one or two of these organs, but not all three.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XBUfUEwyEIA&t=8m08s | title = Clinical and Research Experience of Enteroviral Involvement in ME/CFS. Presentation at the Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2011. | last = Chia | first = John | date = 2011 | website = |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=|quote=Only one group of viruses that routinely will go to the muscles heart and the brain, and that's enteroviruses. | authorlink = }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IWxqftHYvqU&t=2m15s | title = Enteroviruses and Myalgic Encephalomyelitis / Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: An Update on Pathogenesis. Presentation at the Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2015. | last = Chia | first = John | date = 2015 | website = |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=|quote=These viruses can then spread to the central nervous system, the heart, and also muscles. As a group these are viruses are actually the only virus that can actually to go to all three sites, OK. The other viruses can go to one or two and others. | authorlink = }}</ref>

The incubation period (time between catching the virus and the appearance of its first acute symptoms) for coxsackie viruses is three to five days,<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.msdsonline.com/resources/msds-resources/free-safety-data-sheet-index/coxsackievirus/ | title = Coxsackievirus — Material Safety Data Sheet - Infectious Substances | last = | first = | date = |website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref> and the incubation period for echovirus is two to 14 days.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/echovirus-pathogen-safety-data-sheet.html | title = Pathogen Safety Data Sheets: Infectious Substances – Echovirus | last = | first = | date = |website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

Coxsackievirus B (serotypes B2 to B5) and echoviruses account for more than 90% of causes of viral (aseptic) [[meningitis]].<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/215241-clinical#b5 | title = Coxsackieviruses Clinical Presentation (Medscape article) | last = Muller | first = Martha L | date = | website = Medscape |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=|quote=Coxsackievirus B (serotypes 2-5) and echoviruses account for more than 90% of viral causes of aseptic meningitis.}}</ref> Evidence of enteroviral infection in the myocardium or endocardium tissues of the heart is detected in 40% of those who died suddenly of a heart attack, though it is not clear whether enterovirus causes these heart attacks.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti | first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18061067|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23 | pages = 2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref> Another study found 26% of heart attack patients had serological evidence of a very recent coxsackievirus B infection.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Nicholls | first = A.C. | last2 = Thomas | first2 = M. | date = 1977-04-23 | title = Coxsackie virus infection in acute myocardial infarction | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/67289|journal=Lancet (London, England)|volume=1|issue=8017 | pages = 883–884|issn=0140-6736|pmid=67289}}</ref>

== Chronic enterovirus infections ==
{{Main article| page_name=Non-cytolytic enterovirus}}
Like most [[:Category:RNA viruses|RNA viruses]], enterovirus is not capable of assuming a latent state within cells, and enterovirus infections are generally considered to be acute and rapidly cleared by the host immune response.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal | last = Kim | first = K.-S. | last2 = Tracy | first2 = S. | last3 = Tapprich | first3 = W. | last4 = Bailey | first4 = J. | last5 = Lee | first5 = C.-K. | last6 = Kim | first6 = K. | last7 = Barry | first7 = W.H. | last8 = Chapman | first8 = N.M. | date = Jun 2005 | title = 5'-Terminal deletions occur in coxsackievirus B3 during replication in murine hearts and cardiac myocyte cultures and correlate with encapsidation of negative-strand viral RNA| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15890942/|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=79|issue=11 | pages = 7024–7041|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.11.7024-7041.2005|issn=0022-538X|pmc=1112132|pmid=15890942|quote=Picornavirus infections are generally considered to be acute and cleared rapidly by the host adaptive immune response.|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal | last = Flynn | first = Claudia T. | last2 = Kimura | first2 = Taishi | last3 = Frimpong-Boateng | first3 = Kwesi | last4 = Harkins | first4 = Stephanie | last5 = Whitton | first5 = J. Lindsay | date = Dec 2017 | title = Immunological and pathological consequences of coxsackievirus RNA persistence in the heart| url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0042682217303264|journal=Virology|volume=512 | pages = 104–112|doi=10.1016/j.virol.2017.09.017|issn=0042-6822|pmc=5653433|pmid=28950225|quote=until relatively recently, enteroviruses were thought to cause only acute infections, and to be completely eradicated with ~ 2 weeks of the primary infection.|via=}}</ref> Indeed, [[John Chia]] points out that even today, most physicians are taught that enterovirus does not form chronic infections.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.investinme.org/IIMEC10.shtml | title = Enteroviruses and Myalgic Encephalomyelitis / Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: An Update on Pathogenesis. Presentation at the Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2015. | last = Chia | first = John | date = 2015 | website = |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

However, it is now understood that enterovirus B serotypes such as coxsackievirus B and echovirus are capable of mutating during the acute infection into an aberrant viral form called [[non-cytolytic enterovirus]] that can cause persistent low-level infections. These persistent non-cytolytic enterovirus infections deriving from mutated enterovirus B serotypes are found in ME/CFS and several other chronic illnesses, including chronic myocarditis, dilated cardiomyopathy, type 1 diabetes, [[ALS|amytrophic lateral sclerosis]] (motor neuron disease) and [[Parkinson's disease]].

Non-cytolytic enterovirus consists of mutated naked viral RNA which produces persistent intracellular infections inside host cells, and does not readily kill the cells in which it resides. Although this infection replicates very slowly, it nevertheless produces all the normal viral proteins, and these proteins may have pathological disease-causing effects in the host. Persistent non-cytolytic enterovirus is resistant to immune clearance, and can thus reside inside host cells for very long periods. Non-cytolytic enterovirus infections are characterized by a decreased ratio of positive to negative strand viral RNA: whereas in normal acute enterovirus infections, this ratio is around 100:1, in persistence non-cytolytic infections, the ratio has a value closer to 1:1.

== Diagnosis of chronic enterovirus infections ==
Dr John Chia uses the following tests to detect chronic enterovirus infection in ME/CFS patients:<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.enterovirusfoundation.org/treatments-1/ | title = Enterovirus Foundation — Diagnose & Treat | last = | first = | authorlink = | date = | website = |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

'''ARUP Lab micro-neutralization blood tests for enterovirus antibodies'''. Titers of 1:160 to 1:320 or higher on the ARUP Lab [http://ltd.aruplab.com/tests/pub/0060055 coxsackievirus B test] and [http://ltd.aruplab.com/tests/pub/0060053 echovirus test] suggest chronic active infection. These tests use the very sensitive gold standard neutralization method of measuring antibody levels. The ARUP lab test will indicate which particular enterovirus serotypes are present and active in the patient (out of coxsackievirus B1 to B6, and echovirus 6, 7, 9, 11, and 30). Other methods of antibody levels such as ELISA or IFA are less sensitive, and thus may not be reliable. The CFT method of testing for enterovirus antibodies is insensitive and useless for chronic enterovirus infection.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YSgcNSqssTI&t=27m51s | title = Diagnosis and Treatment of Myalgic Encephalomyelitis / Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Associated with Chronic Enterovirus Infection. Presentation at the Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2009. | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = | date = 2009 | website = |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=|quote=The typical antibody that the laboratory would do is called the complement fixation test, which is neither sensitive nor specific. That means if you get a positive test, it's worthless. And if you get a negative test, it's worthless. Well that's wonderful.}}</ref>

'''Stomach biopsy (immunohistochemistry)'''. This test, which requires a sample of stomach tissue obtained by an endoscope and to be sent to [http://www.evmedresearch.com/Immunoperoxidase_Staining_Request_Form250.pdf Dr Chia's lab] for analysis, is the most sensitive for detecting a chronic enteroviral infection, although unlike the ARUP Lab blood tests, the stomach biopsy will not indicate which particular CVB and EV serotypes you have.
[[File:Male Torso Showing Tender Spots in Enterovirus Infection.jpg|thumb|Pain or tenderness at the starred points suggest enterovirus infection of the abdomen. Author: Tim44uk, adapted by Hip. License: CC-BY-SA-2.0]]
Note that PCR testing of the blood is not considered sensitive for chronic enterovirus infections. Since viruses are cleared quickly from the bloodstream, the chance of finding viral gene or RNA in the blood by reverse transcription-PCR technique is low in chronic infection. Dr Chia found that with special techniques and repeated testing, enterovirus RNA can be found in close to thirty percent of whole blood samples taken from chronically infected EV patients.

Dr Chia says that a fairly reliable sign of chronic enterovirus infection of the abdomen in ME/CFS patients is abdominal tenderness or pain in the epigastric area, in the right lower quadrant, and in the left lower quadrant (see the three X's in the abdomen picture). Epigastric pain or tenderness indicates enterovirus infection of the stomach. Right lower quadrant pain or tenderness suggests enterovirus infection of the terminal ileum. Left lower quadrant pain or tenderness suggests enterovirus infection in the small bowel or colon.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WAZ4HiSC_sM&t=19m30s | title = Dr John Chia: Enterovirus Infection in ME/CFS. Presentation at the Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2010. | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = | date = | website = |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=|quote=Here is a young lady's abdomen: you can notice that there's some viral distention, the patient consistently complaining of epigastric pain, nausea, right lower quadrant pain, and left lower quadrant pain. And when I pushed on it, on these X's, can definitely tell me, the tenderness. This is actually a fairly reliable sign to detect enterovirus infection of the abdomen.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XBUfUEwyEIA&t=14m35s | title = Clinical and Research Experience of Enteroviral Involvement in ME/CFS. Presentation at the Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2011. | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = | date = | website = |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=|quote=This is actually a very helpful clinical finding. As you know in the definition of ME/CFS, there is sore throat, and ... ... ok, but there is very little attention to the abdominal symptoms, which most patients actually have. Patients often complain of pain up here, here's the rib cage, end of the rib cage, this is where the stomach is. They oftentimes have pain in the right lower quadrant, roughly where the appendix is, and that's the end of the terminal ileum, as I have shown you in the case before. They oftentimes have tenderness in the left lower quadrant, that either the small bowel here, or the colon, which we are actually able to show proteins or viral RNA in these areas.}}</ref>

== Enterovirus in myalgic encephalomyelitis ==
Ever since the [[Epidemic myalgic encephalomyelitis|historic outbreaks]] of ME/CFS in the 1930s-1970s, enteroviruses, especially [[Coxsackie B]] <nowiki/>viruses, have been [[Enteroviral infection hypothesis|posited]] <nowiki/>as a key etiological factor in [[myalgic encephalomyelitis]]. These frequently coincided with outbreaks of [[polio]], another enterovirus. Findings in several outbreaks seemed to suggest that symptoms were caused by a virus distinct from but related to polio including findings of mild, diffuse [[peripheral nervous system]] damage in monkeys infected with the virus; a stronger response to polio [[Vaccine|vaccination]] in children who had been in epidemic areas; and seasonal patterns of infection resembling polio.<ref name=":06">{{Cite journal | last = Parish | first = JG | date = 1978 | title = Early outbreaks of 'epidemic neuromyasthenia'| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/370810|journal=Postgraduate Medical Journal|volume=54 | pages = 711-7|via=}}</ref>

In addition to data from ME/CFS outbreaks, there have been over 30 studies on enterovirus infections in ME/CFS (see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]), and most studies have found enterovirus present in ME/CFS patients' [[muscle]] tissues, stomach tissues, [[brain]] tissues and [[blood]] cells (though a few studies have failed to find enterovirus in ME/CFS). The chronic enterovirus infections found in ME/CFS have been shown to be of the non-cytolytic form (a reduced ratio of positive to negative strand viral RNA is found in the infections in ME/CFS patients' tissues, which is a signature of non-cytolytic infection).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Cunningham | first = L. | last2 = Bowles | first2 = N.E. | last3 = Lane | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Dubowitz | first4 = V. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | date = Jun 1990 | title = Persistence of enteroviral RNA in chronic fatigue syndrome is associated with the abnormal production of equal amounts of positive and negative strands of enteroviral RNA| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2161907|journal=The Journal of General Virology|volume=71|issue=Pt 6 | pages = 1399–1402|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-71-6-1399|issn=0022-1317|pmid=2161907}}</ref>

===Evidence for enterovirus infection in ME/CFS ===

==== Antibody testing ====
Elevated Coxsackie B antibodies have been found in patients in at least two ME outbreaks.<ref name="Fegan19832">{{Citation | last1 = Fegan | first1 = KG | author-link1 = KG Fegan | last2 = Behan | first2 = PO | authorlink2 = Peter Behan | last3 = Bell | first3 = EJ | authorlink3 = Eleanor Bell | title = Myalgic encephalomyelitis — report of an epidemic | journal = J R Coll Gen Pract | volume = 33 | issue = 251| pages = 335–337 | date = Jun 1, 1983 | pmid = 6310104 | url = http://bjgp.org/content/33/251/335 }}</ref><ref name="Calder19842">{{Citation | last1 = Calder | first1 = BD | author-link1 = BD Calder | last2 = Warnock | first2 = PJ | authorlink2 = PJ Warnock | title = Coxsackie B infection in a Scottish general practice | journal = Jrnl Royal Coll Gen Pract | volume = 34 | issue = 258| pages = 15–19 | date = Jan 1984 | pmid = 6319691 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1959663/ }}</ref> In a retrospective cohort study<ref name="Dowsett19902">{{Citation | last1 = Dowsett | first1 = EG | author-link1 = Elizabeth Dowsett | last2 = Ramsay | first2 = AM | authorlink2 = Melvin Ramsay | last3 = McCartney | first3 = RA | authorlink3 = Robert McCartney | last4 = Bell | first4 = EJ | authorlink4 = Eleanor Bell | title = Myalgic encephalomyelitis--a persistent enteroviral infection? | journal = Postgraduate Medical Journal | volume = 66 | issue = 777| pages = 526–530 | date = Jul 1, 1990 | pmid = 2170962 | doi = 10.1136/pgmj.66.777.526 | url = http://pmj.bmj.com/content/66/777/526 }}</ref> by [[Melvin Ramsay]] and [[Elizabeth Dowsett]], 31% of the patients were found to have elevated enteroviral IgM antibody levels. Sixteen of these patients were retested annually over three years and all showed persistently elevated Coxsackie B neutralizing antibody levels and intermittently positive enteroviral [[Immunoglobulin M|IgM]], suggesting a persistent infection was present.

Similarly, a study of of 76 patients with [[postviral fatigue syndrome]] (PVFS) found that 76% had detectible IgM responses to enteroviruses. 22% had positive cultures (compared to 7% controls) and VP1 antigen was detected in 51%, all pointing to a chronic infection in many post-viral patients.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Yousef | first = G.E. | date = January 1988 | title = CHRONIC ENTEROVIRUS INFECTION IN PATIENTS WITH POSTVIRAL FATIGUE SYNDROME| url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673688927225|journal=The Lancet|volume= | pages = |via=}}</ref> However, a larger study in Scotland of 243 [[Postviral fatigue syndrome|PVFS]] patients and matched controls found no difference in IgM and [[Immunoglobulin G|IgG]] positivity between patients and controls.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = N A | date = 1991 | title = Antibody to Coxsackie B virus in diagnosing postviral fatigue syndrome | url =https://www.bmj.com/content/302/6769/140.short|journal=The British Medical Journal|volume= | pages = |via=}}</ref>

Through antibody testing, Dr John Chia [http://quixoticmeblog.blogspot.com/2014/10/dr-c-recommends-new-treatment-plan.html observes] that the coxsackievirus B (CVB) and echovirus (EV) serotypes most often found in ME/CFS are:
* CVB3 and CVB4 first and foremost
* Then CVB2, EV6, EV7 and EV9
* And then much less EV11
Dr Chia finds that ME/CFS patients have antibody titers for the above enterovirus serotypes at significantly levels higher than those found in healthy controls, which is suggestive of chronic active infection. But Dr Chia points out that ME/CFS patients may have chronic infections with enteroviruses that cannot be detected and typed by antibody blood tests (but which are detectable by stomach tissue biopsy).
==== Polymerase chain reaction ====
In a study of serum samples from 100 CFS patients and 100 healthy controls, 42% of patients were positive for Coxsackie B sequences by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), compared to only 9% of the comparison group.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Nairn | first = C | date = August 1995 | title = Comparison of coxsackie B neutralisation and enteroviral PCR in chronic fatigue patients |url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7595406|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume= | pages = |via=}}</ref>

Also using PCR, a study of 236 patients by John Chia found enteroviral [[RNA]] in 48% of patients as compared to 8% of controls.To date, Chia reports finding enteroviral RNA in 35% of 518 patients.<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | date = November 2005 | title = The role of enterovirus in chronic fatigue syndrome | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1770761/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume= | pages = |via=}}</ref>

==== Muscle biopsy ====
Several muscle biopsy studies have also found the presence of Coxsackie B RNA sequences in CFS patients as compared to controls. A study of 60 PVFS patients found 53% had enteroviral RNA in muscle compared to 15% of controls.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Gow | first = JW | date = | title = Enteroviral RNA sequences detected by polymerase chain reaction in muscle of patients with postviral fatigue syndrome | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1850635|journal=British Medical Journal|volume= | pages = |via=}}</ref> However, a follow-up study comparing CFS patients to patients with other neuromuscular disorders failed to find a statistically significant difference.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Gow | first = JW | date = 1994 | title = Studies on enterovirus in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8148439/|journal=Clin Infect Dis.|volume=18 | pages = S126-9|via=}}</ref>

==== Gut biopsy ====
Research by John Chia and his son, [[Andrew Chia]] has looked for enteroviruses in gut biopsies. Eighty-two percent of samples were positive for [[viral capsid protein 1]] (VP1), compared to 20% of controls. Enteroviral RNA was detected in 37% of biopsy samples, compared to 4.7% of controls. They posit that a subset of [[chronic fatigue syndrome]] (CFS) patients have a chronic enteroviral infection.<ref name="ChiaJKS2016">{{Citation | last1 = Chia | first1 = JKS | author-link1 = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = AY | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | title = Chronic fatigue syndrome is associated with chronic enterovirus infection of the stomach | journal = Journal of Clinical Pathology | volume = 61 | issue = 1| pages = 43–48 | date = Jan 1, 2008 | pmid = 17872383 | doi = 10.1136/jcp.2007.050054 | url = http://jcp.bmj.com/content/61/1/43 }}</ref>

==== Brain autopsy ====

{{Main article | page_name =Autopsy}}

Three post-mortem studies have found enterovirus infections in the brains of ME/CFS patients.

===Why enterovirus ME/CFS was ignored in the US ===

From the 1970s onwards, a number of studies by British researchers found persistent enterovirus infections in ME/CFS patients' muscles, detected by testing muscle tissue biopsies (these UK studies detailed in [[List of enterovirus infection studies|this article]]). The CDC in the USA observed this research coming from the UK, and in 1994, conducted an in-house unpublished study on US ME/CFS patients to see if they could find enterovirus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/supported_browsers?next_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DYSgcNSqssTI&t=22m30s|title=Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2009: Diagnosis and Treatment of ME/CFS Associated With Chronic Enterovirus Infection. Timecode 22:30.|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|access-date=2026-04-20}}</ref> But the CDC made a mistake in their study: they tested ME/CFS patients' blood for enterovirus by PCR, and could not detect the virus. Thus in 1994 the CDC concluded that enterovirus was likely not involved in ME/CFS, so enterovirus was largely ignored in the US as a potential causal factor for ME/CFS. The British researchers, however, were aware that the virus was usually not to be found in the blood, and knew the virus lived the tissues, so they tested muscle tissue samples for enterovirus, and were able to routinely detect enterovirus in ME/CFS patients. But for some reason, the CDC did not follow this methodology. This set back enterovirus ME/CFS research in the US for many years, until Dr John Chia came along and published his seminal 2008 study<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome is associated with chronic enterovirus infection of the stomach|date=2007-09-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17872383/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=61|issue=1|pages=43–48|last=Chia|first=J K S|last2=Chia|first2=A Y|language=en|doi=10.1136/jcp.2007.050054|issn=0021-9746}}</ref> where he detected enterovirus in the stomach tissues of 82% of US ME/CFS patients.

== Other conditions ==

=== Type 1 Diabetes ===
Several studies have suggested a relationship between Coxsackie B4 and the onset of type 1 [[diabetes]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Gamble | first =D.R. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = K.W. | last3 = Cumming | first3 = H. | date = 1973-11-03 | title = Coxsackie Viruses and Diabetes Mellitus |url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1587352/|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=4|issue=5887 | pages = 260–262|issn=0007-1447|pmc=1587352|pmid=4753237}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Ylipaasto | first = P. | last2 = Klingel | first2 = K. | last3 = Lindberg | first3 = A.M. | last4 = Otonkoski | first4 = T. | last5 = Kandolf | first5 = R. | last6 = Hovi | first6 = T. | last7 = Roivainen | first7 = M. | date = 2004-02-01 | title = Enterovirus infection in human pancreatic islet cells, islet tropism in vivo and receptor involvement in cultured islet beta cells |url =http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-003-1297-z|journal=Diabetologia|language=en|volume=47|issue=2 | pages = 225–239|doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1297-z|issn=0012-186X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Bason | first = Caterina | last2 = Lorini | first2 = Renata | last3 = Lunardi | first3 = Claudio | last4 = Dolcino | first4 = Marzia | last5 = Giannattasio | first5 = Alessandro | last6 = d’Annunzio | first6 = Giuseppe | last7 = Rigo | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Pedemonte | first8 = Nicoletta | last9 = Corrocher | first9 = Roberto | date = 2013-02-28 | title = In Type 1 Diabetes a Subset of Anti-Coxsackievirus B4 Antibodies Recognize Autoantigens and Induce Apoptosis of Pancreatic Beta Cells |url =http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0057729|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=2| pages = e57729|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0057729|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3585221|pmid=23469060}}</ref>

A study of patients with Type 1 [[Diabetes]] found that [[Coxsackie B4]] was found to infect the β cells in the pancreatic islets of the [[pancreas]] and cause [[inflammation]] mediated by [[natural killer cell]]s (NKC).<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/104/12/5115.full</ref>

=== Gastroparesis ===
A very small observational study found that nine out of ten patients with symptoms of [[gastroparesis]] had positive gastric biopsies for enterovirus.<ref name="BarkinJA, 20162">{{Citation | last1 = Barkin | first1 = JA | author-link1 = | last2 = Czul | first2 = F | authorlink2 = | last3 = Barkin | first3 = JS | authorlink3 = | last4 = Klimas | first4 = NG | authorlink4 = Nancy Klimas | last5 = Rey | first5 = IR | authorlink5 = Irma Rey | last6 = Moshiree | first6 = B | author-link6 = | title = Gastric Enterovirus Infection: A Possible Causative Etiology of Gastroparesis | journal = Digestive Diseases and Sciences | volume = 61 | issue = 8 | page = 2344-50 | date = 2016 | pmid = 27344315 | doi = 10.1007/s10620-016-4227-x }}</ref>

== Treatment ==

There are no [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] approved treatments for enteroviruses. The drug [[Pleconaril]] has been shown to have activity against a number of enteroviruses<ref name="Rotbart2001">{{Citation | last1 = Rotbart | first1 = HA | author-link1 = Harley A Rotbart | last2 = Webster | first2 = AD | authorlink2 = A. David Webster | title = Treatment of Potentially Life-Threatening Enterovirus Infections with Pleconaril| journal = Clinical Infectious Diseases| volume = 32 | issue = 2| pages = 228–235 | date = Jan 15, 2001 | pmid = 11170912 | doi = 10.1086/318452 | url = http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/32/2/228}}</ref><ref name="Pevear1999">{{Citation | last1 = Pevear | first1 = Daniel C | last2 = Tull | first2 = Tina M | last3 = Seipel | first3 = Martin E | last4 = Groarke | first4 = James M | title = Activity of Pleconaril against Enteroviruses | journal = Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy | volume = 43 | issue = 9| pages = 2109–2115 | date = Sep 1, 1999 | pmid = 10471549 | url = http://aac.asm.org/content/43/9/2109 }}</ref><ref name="Bauer2002">{{Citation | last1 = Bauer | first1 = Sofia | last2 = Gottesman | first2 = Giora | last3 = Sirota | first3 = Lea | last4 = Litmanovitz | first4 = Ita | last5 = Ashkenazi | first5 = Shay | last6 = Levi | first6 = Itzhak | title = Severe Coxsackie virus B infection in preterm newborns treated with pleconaril | journal = European Journal of Pediatrics | volume = 161 | issue = 9| pages = 491–493 | date = Jul 23, 2002 | doi = 10.1007/s00431-002-0929-5 | url = http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00431-002-0929-5 }}</ref><ref name="Groarke1999">{{Citation | last1 = Groarke | first1 = James M | last2 = Pevear | first2 = Daniel C | title = Attenuated Virulence of Pleconaril-Resistant Coxsackievirus B3 Variants | journal = Journal of Infectious Diseases | volume = 179 | issue = 6| pages = 1538–1541 | date = Jun 1, 1999 | pmid = 10228078 | doi = 10.1086/314758 | url = http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/179/6/1538 }}</ref><ref name="Abzug2016">{{Citation | last1 = Abzug | first1 = Mark J | last2 = Michaels | first2 = Marian G | last3 = Wald | first3 = Ellen | last4 = Jacobs | first4 = Richard F | last5 = Romero | first5 = José R | last6 = Sánchez | first6 = Pablo J | last7 = Wilson | first7 = Gregory | last8 = Krogstad | first8 = Paul | last9 =Storch | first9 = Gregory A | last10 = Lawrence | first10 = Robert | last11 = Shelton | first11 = Mark | last12 = Palmer | first12 = April | last13 = Robinson | first13 = Joan | last14 = Dennehy | first14 = Penelope | last15 = Sood | first15 = Sunil K | last16 = Cloud | first16 = Gretchen | last17 = Jester | first17 = Penelope | last18 = Acosta | first18 = Edward P | last19 = Whitley | first19 = Richard | last20 = Kimberlin | first20 = David | last21 = National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group | title = A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Pleconaril for the Treatment of Neonates With Enterovirus Sepsis | journal = Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society | volume = 5 | issue = 1| pages = 53–62 | date = Mar 2016 | pmid = 26407253 | doi = 10.1093/jpids/piv015 | url = http://journals.lww.com/pidj/Abstract/2003/04000/Double_blind_placebo_controlled_trial_of.9.aspx}}</ref> but has not been approved by the FDA.

Treatment usually involves supporting the immune response particularly in those with documented immune dysfunction. Dr. Chia treats his patients with enteroviral infection with [[Equilibrant]], [[gammaglobulin]] and [[interferon]].<ref name="evmed-treatment">{{citation | title = Treatments for Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
| type = webpage | journal = EvMed Research | url = http://www.evmedresearch.com/education/treatment.php}}</ref>

==Talks and interviews==

*2016, [https://youtu.be/mZdG2otpC3w ME and the role of enteroviruses / ME en de rol van enterovirussen - Dr. Byron Hyde‬, MD]

==Learn more==
* [http://www.enteroviruses.com/ Enteroviruses: Health, Learn, Live]
* [https://www.enterovirusfoundation.org/the-symptoms/ Enterovirus Foundation: Signs and Symptoms]
* [https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/217146-overview Enteroviruses (Medscape article)]
* [https://www.cdc.gov/non-polio-enterovirus/index.html Non-Polio Enterovirus (CDC article)]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xz7CaxWtCUU Dr John Chia, International Symposium on Viruses In CFS 2008, ''The Role of Enterovirus in ME/CFS'']
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=obHtCwhg3-0 Dr John Chia, State of Knowledge Workshop on ME/CFS Research 2011 (Day 1) Part 1]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BO-yxqZuXTY Dr John Chia, State of Knowledge Workshop on ME/CFS Research 2011 (Day 1) Part 2]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YSgcNSqssTI Dr John Chia, Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2009]: ''Diagnosis and Treatment of ME/CFS Associated With Chronic Enterovirus Infection''
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WAZ4HiSC_sM Dr John Chia, Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2010:] ''Enterovirus Infection in ME/CFS''
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XBUfUEwyEIA Dr John Chia, Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2011:] ''Clinical and Research Experience of Enteroviral Involvement in ME/CFS''
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IWxqftHYvqU Dr John Chia, Invest in ME International ME Conference, London 2015:] ''Enteroviruses and ME/CFS: An Update on Pathogenesis''
* [http://www.anapsid.org/cnd/diffdx/polio1.html ME/CFS and Polio], chapter from book "ME: The New Plague", Jane Colby.<ref name="ColbyJ1996">{{Cite book | last1 = Colby | first1 = Jane| author-link1 = Jane Colby|chapter = Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A polio by another name| title = ME: The New Plague | date = 1996}}</ref>
* [[pmc:8253308/|The Enterovirus Theory of Disease Etiology in ME/CFS: A Critical Review]], paper by Adam O'Neal and Maureen R. Hanson, 2021.
* [[pmc:10434940/|The viral origin of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome]], paper by Maureen R. Hanson, 2023.

==See also==
*[[Coxsackie B]]
*[[Enteroviral infection hypothesis]]
*[[Viral testing in ME/CFS]]
*[[Irving Spurr]]
*[[James Mowbray]]
*[[John Chia]]
*[[John Richardson]]
*[[List of enterovirus infection studies]]
*[[Non-cytolytic enterovirus]]
*[[Autopsy|Post-mortem brain studies]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Triggers and risk factors]]
[[Category:Virology]]
[[Category:Viruses]]
[[Category:Enteroviruses]]
[[Category:RNA viruses]]

List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

2026-01-25T02:49:09Z

Hip:/* Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens */ Improved depression section

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogenic microbes. By this we mean that certain microbes are found in the bodies of patients with the disease much more frequently than in the bodies of healthy people.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Preface|language=en | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/ | date = 2004|publisher=National Academies Press (US) | last = Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats | last2 = Knobler | first2 = Stacey L. | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Siobhán | last4 = Lemon | first4 = Stanley M. | last5 = Najafi | first5 = Marjan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = O'Connor | first = Siobhán M. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Christopher E. | last3 = Hughes | first3 = James M. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16836820/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1051–1057|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> When a microbe such as a [[virus]], [[bacteria|bacterium]], [[fungus]] or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether that microbe might be the cause of the disease, or might in part be causing the disease in conjunction with other causal factors. There are several possible explanations for why a microbe may be associated with a disease:
* The microbe is an "innocent bystander", playing no causal role in the disease, but for some reason, the microbe is more prevalent in the diseased organs in patients with the illness, perhaps because the immune response is compromised in these diseased organs.
* The microbe causes the disease in tandem with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposures).
* The microbe is a singular cause of the disease.
Generally the idea that persistent microbial infections living the tissues and cells of the body might be the underlying cause of many chronic diseases and cancers has not gained widespread acceptance in the medical science community; however, more and more studies are finding microbial links to chronic illnesses.

==Pathogenic microbes as a cause of chronic diseases and cancers==
Two prominent advocates of the theory that microbes are the cause of numerous chronic diseases and cancers are evolutionary biologist [[wikipedia:Paul_W._Ewald|Professor Paul W. Ewald]], and physicist and anthropologist [[wikipedia:Gregory_Cochran|Dr Gregory Cochran]]. They posit that many chronic diseases and cancers whose etiology is currently unknown will, in the future, likely turn out to be caused by damaging effects from chronic microbial infections living in the body's tissues and cells.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=|title=Plague time: the new germ theory of disease|publisher=Anchor Books|date=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|first=Paul W.|last=Ewald|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease}}</ref><ref name="InfectiousCausation">{{Cite journal|title=Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective|date=2000|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10893730/|journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine|volume=43|issue=3|pages=406–448|last=Cochran|first=G.M.|last2=Ewald|first2=P.W.|last3=Cochran|first3=K.D.|doi=10.1353/pbm.2000.0016|pmid=10893730|issn=0031-5982}}</ref> This viewpoint sharply contrasts with traditional notions of disease etiology, that defective genes, diet, and lifestyle factors underpin disease.

Professor Ewald supports his thesis that germs, not genes, are the primary cause of illnesses with an argument from evolutionary biology: he explains that any faulty genes that cause disease and thus reduce survival and procreation will be rapidly eliminated from the gene pool within a few generations by means of evolutionary natural selection.<ref name="PlagueTime">{{Cite book|title=Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|language=en|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|last=Ewald|first=Paul W.|pages=56}}</ref> Faulty genes are therefore self-extinguishing, and because evolution filters out defective genes so effectively, one would not expect many diseases to result from genetic faults.

Professor Ewald points out that the only faulty genes that are likely to persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, he says the genes that encode for sickle cell disease are maintained and persist down the generations because although these genes are bad, they also protect against malaria, which is a compensating advantage.

Scientists once believed that defective genes would largely explain how most chronic diseases and cancers arise. This belief in part motivated the multi-billion investment in the Human Genome Project, the enterprise to map out all human genes and the entire human genome. But once the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, it soon became apparent that genes do not play a major role in the development of most diseases and cancers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/apr/17/human-genome-genetics-twin-studies|title=The failure of the genome|last=Latham|first=Jonathan|date=2011-04-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> One large meta-analysis found that for the vast majority of chronic diseases, the genetic contribution to the risk of developing the disease is only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191219142739.htm|title=Your DNA is not your destiny -- or a good predictor of your health|date=December 19, 2019|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pafron2019">{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk|date=2019|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31805043/|journal=PloS One|volume=14|issue=12|pages=e0220215|last=Patron|first=Jonas|last2=Serra-Cayuela|first2=Arnau|last3=Han|first3=Beomsoo|last4=Li|first4=Carin|last5=Wishart|first5=David Scott|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220215|pmc=6894795|pmid=31805043|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

Thus the Human Genome Project failed to live up to its hype, and failed to uncover the underlying causes of chronic diseases and cancers. But thanks to this project, we now know genetic factors are not major players in the triggering of disease. So if defective genes cannot explain how chronic diseases and cancers arise, we have to examine other possible causal factors that may be driving disease. When we look at the list of possible causal factors that might underpin disease, that list is short, it consists of: environmental toxins, radiations, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet, and lifestyle factors. There are not many options in that list, which thus brings renewed focus on the idea that infectious agents may be the key players in the development of disease.

Other researchers with an interest in the idea that infectious microbes may be the hidden cause of many chronic diseases and cancers include: Dr Hanan Polansky,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Latent viruses can cause disease by disrupting the competition for the limiting factor p300/CBP|date=2018 Nov 26|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6260892/|journal=Cellular & Molecular Biology Letters|volume=23|pages=56|last=Polansky|first=Hanan|last2=Schwab|first2=Hava|language=en|doi=10.1186/s11658-018-0121-1|pmc=6260892|pmid=30505323}}</ref> Prof Siobhán M. O'Connor,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases - Volume 12, Number 7—July 2006 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/7/06-0037_article|last=O'Connor|first=Siobhán M.|last2=Taylor|first2=Christopher E.|last3=Hughes|first3=James M.|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> Prof Steven S. Coughlin,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases|date=2012 Dec 9|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175921/|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=34|pages=7|last=Coughlin|first=Steven S.|language=en|doi=10.1007/BF03391675|pmc=4175921|pmid=25264396}}</ref> Prof Timothy J. Henrich,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Overview of Infection- Associated Chronic Illnesses|date=2024-04-03|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK602972/|last=National Academies of Sciences|first=Engineering|last2=Division|first2=Health and Medicine|last3=Policy|first3=Board on Health Sciences|last4=Health|first4=Board on Global|last5=Disorders|first5=Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System|last6=Threats|first6=Forum on Microbial|last7=Snair|first7=Megan|last8=Liao|first8=Julie|last9=Ashby|first9=Elizabeth|last10=Biffl|first10=Claire|language=en|publisher=National Academies Press (US)}}</ref> and Prof Wendy Bjerke.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings|date=2011-01-01|url=https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/pthms_fac/2|journal=All PTHMS Faculty Publications|volume=5|issue=1|last=Bjerke|first=Wendy|doi=10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.05}}</ref>

Note, however, that more than one causal factor may be involved in the onset and development of a chronic disease or cancer: an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are simultaneously present. An example of this arises in a mouse model of Crohn's disease, an illness that can be precipitated by a norovirus infection of the intestinal tissues, but only when both a specific gene variant is present, and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine|date=2010-06-25|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997/|journal=Cell|volume=141|issue=7|pages=1135–1145|last=Cadwell|first=Ken|last2=Patel|first2=Khushbu K.|last3=Maloney|first3=Nicole S.|last4=Liu|first4=Ta-Chiang|last5=Ng|first5=Aylwin C.Y.|last6=Storer|first6=Chad E.|last7=Head|first7=Richard D.|last8=Xavier|first8=Ramnik|last9=Stappenbeck|first9=Thaddeus S.|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009|pmc=2908380|pmid=20602997|issn=1097-4172}}</ref> Thus although a microbe may be the primary factor in the onset of diease, its ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon other causal factors.

Microbe-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.<ref name="Kockaya2010">{{Cite journal|title=What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures|date=2010-10-26|url=http://www.scirp.org/Journal/Paperabs.aspx?paperid=2817|journal=Health|volume=2|issue=10|pages=1174–1178|last=Kockaya|first=Guvenc|last2=Wertheimer|first2=Albert|language=en|doi=10.4236/health.2010.210172}}</ref> About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/default/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf|title=Almanac of Chronic Disease|last=Carmona|first=Richard H.|authorlink=|date=2009|website=|publisher=Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|at=Forward|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens==
In the following list of diseases linked to infectious microbes, there is a good possibility that the microbes might be causing the disease, but further research is needed to work out whether these microbes do play a causal role.

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to microbes, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of microbe-associated illnesses.
{| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0"
| style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''Microbes Linked to the Disease'''
|-
| '''Alzheimer's disease'''
| Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>, [[Helicobacter pylori]]<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and Fusobacterium nucleatum.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Periodontal Pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum Exacerbates Alzheimer’s Pathogenesis via Specific Pathways|date=2022 Jun 23|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9260256/|journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience|volume=14|pages=912709|last=Wu|first=Hongle|last2=Qiu|first2=Wei|last3=Zhu|first3=Xiaofang|last4=Li|first4=Xiangfen|last5=Xie|first5=Zhongcong|last6=Carreras|first6=Isabel|last7=Dedeoglu|first7=Alpaslan|last8=Dyke|first8=Thomas Van|last9=Han|first9=Yiping W.|last10=Karimbux|first10=Nadeem|last11=Tu|first11=Qisheng|language=en|doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.912709|pmc=9260256|pmid=35813949}}</ref> Alzheimer's is associated with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref>
Alzheimer's is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1 in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref> Alzheimer's has been linked to [[cytomegalovirus]] infection of the brain, which may enter the brain by travelling along the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alzheimer's disease-associated CD83(+) microglia are linked with increased immunoglobulin G4 and human cytomegalovirus in the gut, vagal nerve, and brain|date=2024-12-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39698934/|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association|last=Readhead|first=Benjamin P.|last2=Mastroeni|first2=Diego F.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi|last4=Sierra|first4=Maria A.|last5=de Ávila|first5=Camila|last6=Jimoh|first6=Tajudeen O.|last7=Haure-Mirande|first7=Jean-Vianney|last8=Atanasoff|first8=Kristina E.|last9=Nolz|first9=Jennifer|last10=Suazo|first10=Crystal|last11=Barton|first11=Nathaniel J.|doi=10.1002/alz.14401|pmid=39698934|issn=1552-5279}}</ref> The viruses [[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal|title=Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|date=Dec 2015|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|last=Pisa|first=Diana|authorlink=|last2=Alonso|first2=Ruth|authorlink2=|last3=Rábano|first3=Alberto|authorlink3=|last4=Rodal|first4=Izaskun|authorlink4=|last5=Carrasco|first5=Luis|authorlink5=|language=en|doi=10.1038/srep15015|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|issn=2045-2322|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]'''
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with retrovirus<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
|-
| '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]'''
| Infection with borrelia species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa.<ref name="pmid7943444" /> In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[Streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. Adolescent girls who had hospital-treated infections, or had less severe infections treated with anti-infective agents, were found to be at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Exposure to Infections in Childhood With Risk of Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls|date=2019 Apr 24|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6487907/|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=76|issue=8|pages=800|last=Breithaupt|first=Lauren|last2=Köhler-Forsberg|first2=Ole|last3=Larsen|first3=Janne Tidselbak|last4=Benros|first4=Michael E.|last5=Thornton|first5=Laura Marie|last6=Bulik|first6=Cynthia M.|last7=Petersen|first7=Liselotte|language=en|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0297|pmc=6487907|pmid=31017632}}</ref> [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" />
|-
| '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]'''
| Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Helicobacter pylori Infection with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|date=10 July 2024|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/9247586|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|last=Li|first=L|last2=Ren|first2=Y|doi=10.1155/2024/9247586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Helicobacter pylori infection association with anxiety in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms in Hadhramout|url=https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/helicobacter-pylori-infection-association-with-anxiety-in-patients-with-upper-gastrointestinal-symptoms-in-hadhramout-27168.html|journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Digestive Diseases|volume=8|issue=5|pages=daakeek|last=Ahmed M.|last2=Musiaan|first2=Nabeel S.|last3=Al-Zaazaai|first3=Ahmed}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Infection with Toxoplasma gondii increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study|date=2020 Jul 30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10317747/|journal=Parasitology|volume=147|issue=13|pages=1577|last=Lin|first=Hsin-An|last2=Chien|first2=Wu-Chien|last3=Huang|first3=Kuo-Yang|last4=Chung|first4=Chi-Hsiang|last5=Chen|first5=Lih-Chyang|last6=Lin|first6=Hsin-Chung|last7=Guo|first7=Jong-Long|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0031182020001183|pmc=10317747|pmid=32729456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Population-based cohort study of Toxoplasma gondii P22 antibody positivity correlation with anxiety|date=2024-08-15|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38729222/|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=359|pages=41–48|last=Yang|first=Lili|last2=Wang|first2=Biyun|last3=Wu|first3=Shuizhen|last4=Yang|first4=Zihan|last5=Xin|first5=Zixuan|last6=Zheng|first6=Shuyu|last7=Zou|first7=Weihao|last8=Zhang|first8=Chi|last9=Chen|first9=Jiating|last10=Peng|first10=Hongjuan|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.043|pmid=38729222|issn=1573-2517}}</ref> and associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref> Individuals with more attachment anxiety had higher EBV VCA IgG antibody titers.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Attachment anxiety is related to Epstein–Barr virus latency|date=2014-10|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4304069/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=41|pages=232–238|last=Fagundes|first=Christopher P.|last2=Jaremka|first2=Lisa M.|last3=Glaser|first3=Ronald|last4=Alfano|first4=Catherine M.|last5=Povoski|first5=Stephen P.|last6=Lipari|first6=Adele M.|last7=Agnese|first7=Doreen M.|last8=Yee|first8=Lisa D.|last9=Carson|first9=William E.|last10=Farrar|first10=William B.|last11=Malarkey|first11=William B.|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.04.002|pmc=4304069|issn=0889-1591}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Asthma]]'''
| Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref>
|-
| '''Atherosclerosis'''
| Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> Atherosclerosis is linked to the bacteria Helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref>
|-
| '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder'''
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[Streptococcus]], and with the viruses HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].
Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref>
|-
| '''Autism'''
| Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s'''
| Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases are linked to the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref>
|-
| '''Bipolar disorder'''
| Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Bipolar has been linked to Toxoplasma gondii and cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Serum antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii and Herpesvidae family viruses in individuals with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a case-control study|date=2011 Jul|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21991754/|journal=Ethiopian medical journal|volume=49|issue=3|language=en|issn=0014-1755}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Cancer]]'''
|Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to microbial causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the microbes currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some microbes proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to microbes that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

* '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref>
* '''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref>
* '''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by Schistosoma helminths,<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref> and BK virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The case for BK polyomavirus as a cause of bladder cancer|date=2019-12|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6901737/|journal=Current Opinion in Virology|volume=39|pages=8–15|last=Starrett|first=Gabriel J|last2=Buck|first2=Christopher B|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.coviro.2019.06.009|pmc=6901737|issn=1879-6257}}</ref>
* '''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref>
* '''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref>
* '''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref>
* '''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[Helicobacter pylori]], Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref>
* '''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref>
* '''Hodgkin's lymphoma''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref>
* '''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
* '''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref>
* '''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref>
* '''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
* '''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
* '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref>
* '''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
* '''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref>
* '''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.
* '''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with mumps virus.<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref>
* '''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref>
* '''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref>
* '''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref>
* '''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref>
* '''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref>
* '''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]'''
|Myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is primarily associated with two [[enterovirus]]es, namely [[Coxsackie B virus]] and [[echovirus]] (for references see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]); with three [[herpesviruses]], namely [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[cytomegalovirus]] and [[human herpesvirus 6]] (for references see [[list of herpesvirus infection studies]]); and with [[SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref>
More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6:58|access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after Giardia enteritis: clinical characteristics, disability and long-term sickness absence|date=2012-02-08|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22316329/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=12|pages=13|last=Naess|first=Halvor|last2=Nyland|first2=Morten|last3=Hausken|first3=Trygve|last4=Follestad|first4=Inghild|last5=Nyland|first5=Harald I.|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-12-13|pmc=3292445|pmid=22316329|issn=1471-230X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome 5 years after giardiasis: differential diagnoses, characteristics and natural course|date=2013-02-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399438/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=13|pages=28|last=Mørch|first=Kristine|last2=Hanevik|first2=Kurt|last3=Rivenes|first3=Ann C.|last4=Bødtker|first4=Jørn E.|last5=Næss|first5=Halvor|last6=Stubhaug|first6=Bjarte|last7=Wensaas|first7=Knut-Arne|last8=Rortveit|first8=Guri|last9=Eide|first9=Geir E.|last10=Hausken|first10=Trygve|last11=Langeland|first11=Nina|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-13-28|pmc=3598369|pmid=23399438|issn=1471-230X}}</ref> [[Ross River virus]] <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Changing epidemiology of Ross River virus disease in South Australia|date=1996-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8862330/|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=165|issue=6|pages=313–317|last=Selden|first=S. M.|last2=Cameron|first2=A. S.|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124989.x|pmid=8862330|issn=0025-729X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study|date=2006-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16950834/|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=333|issue=7568|pages=575|last=Hickie|first=Ian|last2=Davenport|first2=Tracey|last3=Wakefield|first3=Denis|last4=Vollmer-Conna|first4=Ute|last5=Cameron|first5=Barbara|last6=Vernon|first6=Suzanne D.|last7=Reeves|first7=William C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Andrew|last9=Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group|doi=10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE|pmc=1569956|pmid=16950834|issn=1756-1833}}</ref> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evaluation of Prolonged Fatigue Post–West Nile Virus Infection and Association of Fatigue with Elevated Antiviral and Proinflammatory Cytokines|date=2014-09-01|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4150370/|journal=Viral Immunology|volume=27|issue=7|pages=327–333|last=Garcia|first=Melissa N.|last2=Hause|first2=Anne M.|last3=Walker|first3=Christopher M.|last4=Orange|first4=Jordan S.|last5=Hasbun|first5=Rodrigo|last6=Murray|first6=Kristy O.|doi=10.1089/vim.2014.0035|pmc=4150370|pmid=25062274|issn=0882-8245}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic myocarditis'''
|Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease'''
|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Crohn's disease]]'''
|Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus Candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]] and Serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref> Crohn's disease development has been linked to commensal yeast Candida albicans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An immunological link between Candida albicans colonization and Crohn's disease|date=2015-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23855357/|journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology|volume=41|issue=2|pages=135–139|last=Gerard|first=Romain|last2=Sendid|first2=Boualem|last3=Colombel|first3=Jean-Frederic|last4=Poulain|first4=Daniel|last5=Jouault|first5=Thierry|doi=10.3109/1040841X.2013.810587|pmid=23855357|issn=1549-7828}}</ref> One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref> Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref> In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when all three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
|-
|'''Coronary heart disease'''
|Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dementia'''
|Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444" />
|-
|'''[[Depression]]'''
|Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Cytomegalovirus antibodies are associated with mood disorders, suicide, markers of neuroinflammation, and microglia activation in postmortem brain samples|date=2023-06-30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10756933/|journal=Molecular Psychiatry|volume=28|issue=12|pages=5282–5292|last=Zheng|first=Haixia|last2=Webster|first2=Maree J.|last3=Weickert|first3=Cynthia Shannon|last4=Beasley|first4=Clare L.|last5=Paulus|first5=Martin P.|last6=Yolken|first6=Robert H.|last7=Savitz|first7=Jonathan|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41380-023-02162-4|pmc=10756933|issn=1359-4184}}</ref> [[West Nile virus|Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> [[West Nile virus]],<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> the parasite Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and psychiatric disorders: a cross-sectional study in China|date=2022 Sep 5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9445102/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=15092|last=Liu|first=Taixiu|last2=Gao|first2=Peng|last3=Bu|first3=Deyun|last4=Liu|first4=Dong|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-16420-y|pmc=9445102|pmid=36064811}}</ref> and the bacterial species [[Bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal|title=Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|date=2007-09-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3|pages=54|last=Schaller|first=James L.|last2=Burkland|first2=Glenn A.|last3=Langhoff|first3=P.J.|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060|issn=1531-0132}}</ref> and [[Borrelia]].<ref name="pmid7943444" />
Depression in children and adolescents is linked to prior acute enterovirus infection of the central nervous system.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association between depression and enterovirus infection|date=2017-02|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5293453/|journal=Medicine|volume=96|issue=5|pages=e5983|last=Liao|first=Yin-To|last2=Hsieh|first2=Ming-Hong|last3=Yang|first3=Yao-Hsu|last4=Wang|first4=Ying-Ching|last5=Tsai|first5=Ching-Shu|last6=Chen|first6=Vincent Chin-Hung|last7=Gossop|first7=Michael|language=en|doi=10.1097/MD.0000000000005983|pmc=5293453|issn=0025-7974}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref>

'''Seasonal affective disorder''' (winter depression) is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]'''
|Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[Coxsackie B virus]] can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms.<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref>
Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref>

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family.
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]'''
|Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus.<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from a Staphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref>
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|'''Dilated cardiomyopathy'''
|Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref>
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|'''Epilepsy'''
|Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) infection of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref>
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|'''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]'''
|Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref>
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|'''[[Hypertension]]'''
|Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref>
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|'''Infertility'''
|Infertility is linked to an endometrium infection with [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus variant A (HHV-6A).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref>
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|'''[[Interstitial cystitis]]'''
|The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomaviruses, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> and treatment with the EBV antiviral valacyclovir results in clinical improvement in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary Viral Spectrum in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome and the Clinical Efficacy of Valacyclovir Treatment|date=2024-02-26|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38540138/|journal=Biomedicines|volume=12|issue=3|pages=522|last=Kuo|first=Hann-Chorng|last2=Peng|first2=Chih-Wen|last3=Jiang|first3=Yuan-Hong|last4=Jhang|first4=Jia-Fong|doi=10.3390/biomedicines12030522|pmc=10967905|pmid=38540138|issn=2227-9059}}</ref>
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|'''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]'''
|Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> IBS is linked to protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> IBS in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Lower back pain]]'''
|Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref>
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|'''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]'''
|Systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with the viruses Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|date=Sep 2006|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5|pages=462–467|last=James|first=Judith A.|last2=Harley|first2=John B.|last3=Scofield|first3=R. Hal|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|pmid=16896283|issn=1040-8711}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref> A study found that Epstein-Barr virus reprograms B-cells to cause autoimmune attacks.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus reprograms autoreactive B cells as antigen-presenting cells in systemic lupus erythematosus|date=2025-11-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41223250/|journal=Science Translational Medicine|volume=17|issue=824|last=Younis|first=Shady|last2=Moutusy|first2=Salvinaz I.|last3=Rasouli|first3=Sajede|last4=Jahanbani|first4=Shaghayegh|last5=Pandit|first5=Mahesh|last6=Wu|first6=Xiaohao|last7=Acharya|first7=Suman|last8=Sharpe|first8=Orr|last9=Wijeratne|first9=Tilini U.|last10=Harris|first10=Marlayna L.|last11=Yang|first11=Emily Y.|language=en|doi=10.1126/scitranslmed.ady0210|issn=1946-6234}}</ref>
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|'''Macular degeneration'''
|Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high cytomegalovirus antibody titers.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref>
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|'''[[Metabolic syndrome]]'''
|Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and Helicobacter pylori. It is also linked to the viruses cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref>
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|'''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'''
|Multiple sclerosis is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus.<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> One study found EBV in the brain tissues of most ME patients.<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2|pages=e0192109|last=Hassani|first=Asma|last2=Corboy|first2=John R.|last3=Al-Salam|first3=Suhail|last4=Khan|first4=Gulfaraz|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> A landmark 2022 longitudinal study provided strong evidence that EBV is the leading cause of multiple sclerosis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Longitudinal analysis reveals high prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus associated with multiple sclerosis|date=2022-01-21|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35025605/|journal=Science|volume=375|issue=6578|pages=296–301|last=Bjornevik|first=Kjetil|last2=Cortese|first2=Marianna|last3=Healy|first3=Brian C.|last4=Kuhle|first4=Jens|last5=Mina|first5=Michael J.|last6=Leng|first6=Yumei|last7=Elledge|first7=Stephen J.|last8=Niebuhr|first8=David W.|last9=Scher|first9=Ann I.|last10=Munger|first10=Kassandra L.|last11=Ascherio|first11=Alberto|language=en|doi=10.1126/science.abj8222|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Multiple sclerosis is also linked to [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref>
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|'''Myocardial infarction'''
|Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of a sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref>
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|'''Myopia'''
|Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough) and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref>
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|'''[[Obesity]]'''
|Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Adenovirus 36 prevalence and association with human obesity: a systematic review|date=2021-03-22|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41366-021-00805-6|journal=International Journal of Obesity|volume=45|issue=6|pages=1342–1356|last=da Silva Fernandes|first=Jaime|last2=Schuelter-Trevisol|first2=Fabiana|last3=Cancelier|first3=Ana Carolina Lobor|last4=Gonçalves e Silva|first4=Helena Caetano|last5=de Sousa|first5=Daiana Gomes|last6=Atkinson|first6=Richard L.|last7=Trevisol|first7=Daisson José|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41366-021-00805-6|issn=0307-0565}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36, adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37 will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> It is known that adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref> Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref>
Obesity is associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium, [[Staphylococcus]], [[Streptococcus]], and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref>
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'''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]'''
|Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with Streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in adults with Lyme disease|date=2018-03|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29408088/|journal=General Hospital Psychiatry|volume=51|pages=85–89|last=Johnco|first=Carly|last2=Kugler|first2=Brittany B.|last3=Murphy|first3=Tanya K.|last4=Storch|first4=Eric A.|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2018.01.009|issn=0163-8343}}</ref> species bacteria.
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'''[[Panic disorder]]'''
|Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" />
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'''[[Parkinson's disease]]'''
|Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]],<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7|pages=302|last=Dourmashkin|first=Robert R.|last2=McCall|first2=Sherman A.|last3=Dourmashkin|first3=Neil|last4=Hannah|first4=Matthew J.|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977|issn=2046-1402}}</ref> Ljungan virus (from the picornavirus family),<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> and [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus.<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> Human pegivirus is found in the brains of 50% of Parkinson's patients, but is not found in the brains of controls.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Human pegivirus alters brain and blood immune and transcriptomic profiles of patients with Parkinson’s disease|date=2025-07-08|url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/189988|journal=JCI Insight|volume=10|issue=13|last=Hanson|first=Barbara A.|last2=Dang|first2=Xin|last3=Jamshidi|first3=Pouya|last4=Steffens|first4=Alicia|last5=Copenhaver|first5=Kaleigh|last6=Orban|first6=Zachary S.|last7=Bustos|first7=Bernabe|last8=Lubbe|first8=Stephen J.|last9=Castellani|first9=Rudolph J.|last10=Koralnik|first10=Igor J.|language=en|doi=10.1172/jci.insight.189988|issn=2379-3708}}</ref> Parkinson's is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref> Parkinson’s disease is linked to Streptococcus mutans in the gut; these bacteria produce imidazole propionate which is toxic to dopamine neurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gut microbial production of imidazole propionate drives Parkinson’s pathologies|date=2025-09-05|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63473-4|journal=Nature Communications|volume=16|issue=1|last=Park|first=Hyunji|last2=Cheon|first2=Jiwon|last3=Kim|first3=Hyojung|last4=kim|first4=Jihye|last5=Kim|first5=Jihyun|last6=Shin|first6=Jeong-Yong|last7=Kim|first7=Hyojin|last8=Ryu|first8=Gaeun|last9=Chung|first9=In Young|last10=Kim|first10=Ji Hun|last11=Kim|first11=Doeun|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41467-025-63473-4|pmc=12413466|issn=2041-1723}}</ref>
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'''Psoriasis'''
|Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref>
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'''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]'''
|Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and Proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[Borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref>
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'''[[Sarcoidosis]]'''
|Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref>
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'''Schizophrenia'''
|Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]].<ref name="pmid12857781" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name=":1" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> Borrelia,<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella henselae (the cause of cat scratch disease).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref>
One study found that a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found influenza virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk that the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref>

Individuals experiencing acute psychosis are nearly 11 times more likely to have a urinary tract infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary tract infections in acute psychosis|date=2014-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24499998/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=75|issue=4|pages=379–385|last=Graham|first=Krystle L.|last2=Carson|first2=Chelsea M.|last3=Ezeoke|first3=Amaka|last4=Buckley|first4=Peter F.|last5=Miller|first5=Brian J.|doi=10.4088/JCP.13m08469|pmid=24499998|issn=1555-2101}}</ref>
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'''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]'''
|Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the enterovirus [[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref>
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'''Stroke'''
|Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[Helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> Mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> Stroke is linked to [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus Histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref>
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'''Tourette syndrome'''
|Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[Streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref>
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|'''Valvular heart disease'''
|Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissues.
|-
|
'''Vasculitis'''
|Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.
|}

==How persistent microbes in the body may give rise to a disease==
Persistent microbes residing in the body can cause damage or dysfunction by numerous means:

* Microbes can infect and destroy host cells
* Microbes may secrete toxins, enzymes or metabolic by-products that damage host tissues or disrupt physiological processes
* Microbes may modify host gene expression
* Microbes may promote genetic mutations that lead to tumour development
* Microbes may induce a host immune response against them, causing collateral damage to the tissues
* Microbes may trigger autoimmunity leading to inflammatory damage to the body
* Microbial immune evasion tactics may lead to immune dysfunction (to aid their survival, all microbes living in the body engage in immune evasion, which involves the microbe synthesising immunomodulating proteins that thwart or disrupt immune system functioning)

==Difficulties in determining whether a pathogenic microbe might be causing a disease==
Determining whether a pathogenic microbe plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:
*The time between contracting the infectious microbe and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
*An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
*An infectious microbe may not cause its associated disease in every person.
*Only specific strains of a microbe may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).<ref name="Mechelli2015">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref>
*A given disease may be precipitated by more than one microbe.
*A microbe may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
*A microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
*Some microbes are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect microbes to a disease.
*For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
*A microbe may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the microbe.
In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large body of published studies demonstrating these associations.

==Notable studies==
*2000, [https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2000.0016 Infectious Causation of Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective] - Gregory Cochran, Paul W. Ewald ''et al''
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83689/ The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary] - Forum on Microbial Threats
*2004, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128097/ Virus-induced neurobehavioral disorders: mechanisms and implications] - Keizo Tomonaga
*2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011700/ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/eid/vol4no3/adobe/cassell.pdf Infectious Causes of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer] - Gail H. Cassell
*2006, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291059/ Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases] - Siobhán M O'Connor ''et al''
*2006, [[pmc:1479565/|The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers: it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human micro ecology and the nature of chronic disease]] - Caroline Hadley
*2008, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioral-psychiatric-au Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2010, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioural-psychiatric-a Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2011, [https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=jsbhs The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings] - Wendy Bjerke
*2012, [https://mpkb.org/home/pathogenesis/evidence_bacteria Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens] - Autoimmunity Research Foundation
*2012, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS407997/ Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases] - Steven S Coughlin
*2013, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23935899/ Causal Inference Regarding Infectious Aetiology of Chronic Conditions: A Systematic Review] - Sofia Orrskog ''et al''
*2023, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779437/ Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future] - Robert C Bransfield ''et al''
*2024, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349683/ Viral infections in etiology of mental disorders: a broad analysis of cytokine profile similarities – a narrative review] - Piotr Lorkiewicz ''et al''

==Articles and blogs==
*1999, [https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/0223102a.html Do Germs Cause Cancer?] - Forbes
*1999 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/a-new-germ-theory/377430/ A New Germ Theory] - The Atlantic Monthly Magazine
*1999, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199907/the-infection-connection The Infection Connection] - Psychology Today
*2005, [https://www.alzforum.org/webinars/pathogen-hypothesis-challenging-primacy-genetics-late-onset-alzheimer-disease?liveID=36 Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease] - Alzheimer Research Forum
*2008, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080522155752.htm The Emerging Role Of Infection In Alzheimer's Disease] - Science Daily
*2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230530004102/https://microbeminded.com/2017/11/11/interview-with-evolutionary-biologist-paul-ewald-infection-and-chronic-disease/ Interview With Evolutionary Biologist Paul Ewald] - Amy Proal
*2008, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infected-with-insanity/ Infected with Insanity: Could Microbes Cause Mental Illness?] - Scientific American
*2009, [https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-big-idea-that-might-beat-cancer-and-cut-health-care-costs-by-80-percent The Big Idea That Might Beat Cancer and Cut Health-Care Costs by 80 Percent] - Discover Magazine
*2010, [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/crohns-disease-triggers-may-include-viruses-other-factors Crohn’s Disease Triggers May Include Viruses and Other Factors] - National Institutes of Health
*2012, [https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-an-infection-suddenly-cause-ocd-201202274417 Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?] - Harvard Health Blog
*2012, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-perfectionists-handbook/201202/can-infections-result-in-mental-illness Can Infections Result in Mental Illness?] - Psychology Today
*2013, [https://www.medicaldaily.com/people-hospitalized-infections-are-62-more-likely-develop-mood-disorder-246876 People Hospitalized For Infections Are 62% More Likely To Develop A Mood Disorder] - Medical Daily
*2014, [https://www.livescience.com/43356-chronic-infections-cognitive-decline.html Chronic Infections Linked with Memory Problems Later in Life] - Live Science
*2015, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/05/150521095016.htm Infections can affect your IQ] - Science Daily
*2016, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q9zAG92V9M Toward a Unified, Evolutionary Theory of Cancer] - Paul Ewald: video on the infectious causes of cancer
*2019, [https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/psychiatric-disorders-are-infectious-agents-blame Psychiatric Disorders: Are Infectious Agents to Blame?] - Psychiatric Times
*2023, [https://www.mdedge.com/rheumatology/article/264214/long-covid/infection-related-chronic-illness-new-paradigm-research-and/page/0/1 Infection-related chronic illness: A new paradigm for research and treatment] - MDedge
*2023, [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/22/health/viral-infections-autoimmune-covid.html How Viral Infections Cause Long-Term Health Problems] - New York Tines

==Books==
*2002, [https://www.amazon.com/Plague-Time-Germ-Theory-Disease/dp/0385721846 Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease] - Paul W. Ewald
*2003, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714733_Microcompetition_with_Foreign_DNA_and_the_Origin_of_Chronic_Disease Microcompetition With Foreign DNA And the Origin of Chronic Disease] - Hanan Polansky
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561283/ Microbial Triggers of Chronic Human Illness] - American Society for Microbiology
*2006, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Potbelly-Syndrome-Obesity-Diabetes-Disease/dp/159120058X Potbelly Syndrome: How Common Germs Lead to Obesity, Diabetes and Heart Disease] - Russel Farris and Per Marin
*2008, [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5996250-stealth-germs-in-your-body Stealth Germs in Your Body] - Erno Daniel

==See also==
*[[Virus]]
*[[Pathogen]]s
*[[:Category:Triggers and risk factors|Triggers and risk factors (category)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Lists]]

List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

2026-01-25T00:43:31Z

Hip:/* Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens */ Added more disease-microbe associations.

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogenic microbes. By this we mean that certain microbes are found in the bodies of patients with the disease much more frequently than in the bodies of healthy people.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Preface|language=en | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/ | date = 2004|publisher=National Academies Press (US) | last = Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats | last2 = Knobler | first2 = Stacey L. | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Siobhán | last4 = Lemon | first4 = Stanley M. | last5 = Najafi | first5 = Marjan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = O'Connor | first = Siobhán M. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Christopher E. | last3 = Hughes | first3 = James M. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16836820/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1051–1057|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> When a microbe such as a [[virus]], [[bacteria|bacterium]], [[fungus]] or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether that microbe might be the cause of the disease, or might in part be causing the disease in conjunction with other causal factors. There are several possible explanations for why a microbe may be associated with a disease:
* The microbe is an "innocent bystander", playing no causal role in the disease, but for some reason, the microbe is more prevalent in the diseased organs in patients with the illness, perhaps because the immune response is compromised in these diseased organs.
* The microbe causes the disease in tandem with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposures).
* The microbe is a singular cause of the disease.
Generally the idea that persistent microbial infections living the tissues and cells of the body might be the underlying cause of many chronic diseases and cancers has not gained widespread acceptance in the medical science community; however, more and more studies are finding microbial links to chronic illnesses.

==Pathogenic microbes as a cause of chronic diseases and cancers==
Two prominent advocates of the theory that microbes are the cause of numerous chronic diseases and cancers are evolutionary biologist [[wikipedia:Paul_W._Ewald|Professor Paul W. Ewald]], and physicist and anthropologist [[wikipedia:Gregory_Cochran|Dr Gregory Cochran]]. They posit that many chronic diseases and cancers whose etiology is currently unknown will, in the future, likely turn out to be caused by damaging effects from chronic microbial infections living in the body's tissues and cells.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=|title=Plague time: the new germ theory of disease|publisher=Anchor Books|date=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|first=Paul W.|last=Ewald|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease}}</ref><ref name="InfectiousCausation">{{Cite journal|title=Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective|date=2000|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10893730/|journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine|volume=43|issue=3|pages=406–448|last=Cochran|first=G.M.|last2=Ewald|first2=P.W.|last3=Cochran|first3=K.D.|doi=10.1353/pbm.2000.0016|pmid=10893730|issn=0031-5982}}</ref> This viewpoint sharply contrasts with traditional notions of disease etiology, that defective genes, diet, and lifestyle factors underpin disease.

Professor Ewald supports his thesis that germs, not genes, are the primary cause of illnesses with an argument from evolutionary biology: he explains that any faulty genes that cause disease and thus reduce survival and procreation will be rapidly eliminated from the gene pool within a few generations by means of evolutionary natural selection.<ref name="PlagueTime">{{Cite book|title=Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|language=en|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|last=Ewald|first=Paul W.|pages=56}}</ref> Faulty genes are therefore self-extinguishing, and because evolution filters out defective genes so effectively, one would not expect many diseases to result from genetic faults.

Professor Ewald points out that the only faulty genes that are likely to persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, he says the genes that encode for sickle cell disease are maintained and persist down the generations because although these genes are bad, they also protect against malaria, which is a compensating advantage.

Scientists once believed that defective genes would largely explain how most chronic diseases and cancers arise. This belief in part motivated the multi-billion investment in the Human Genome Project, the enterprise to map out all human genes and the entire human genome. But once the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, it soon became apparent that genes do not play a major role in the development of most diseases and cancers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/apr/17/human-genome-genetics-twin-studies|title=The failure of the genome|last=Latham|first=Jonathan|date=2011-04-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> One large meta-analysis found that for the vast majority of chronic diseases, the genetic contribution to the risk of developing the disease is only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191219142739.htm|title=Your DNA is not your destiny -- or a good predictor of your health|date=December 19, 2019|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pafron2019">{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk|date=2019|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31805043/|journal=PloS One|volume=14|issue=12|pages=e0220215|last=Patron|first=Jonas|last2=Serra-Cayuela|first2=Arnau|last3=Han|first3=Beomsoo|last4=Li|first4=Carin|last5=Wishart|first5=David Scott|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220215|pmc=6894795|pmid=31805043|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

Thus the Human Genome Project failed to live up to its hype, and failed to uncover the underlying causes of chronic diseases and cancers. But thanks to this project, we now know genetic factors are not major players in the triggering of disease. So if defective genes cannot explain how chronic diseases and cancers arise, we have to examine other possible causal factors that may be driving disease. When we look at the list of possible causal factors that might underpin disease, that list is short, it consists of: environmental toxins, radiations, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet, and lifestyle factors. There are not many options in that list, which thus brings renewed focus on the idea that infectious agents may be the key players in the development of disease.

Other researchers with an interest in the idea that infectious microbes may be the hidden cause of many chronic diseases and cancers include: Dr Hanan Polansky,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Latent viruses can cause disease by disrupting the competition for the limiting factor p300/CBP|date=2018 Nov 26|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6260892/|journal=Cellular & Molecular Biology Letters|volume=23|pages=56|last=Polansky|first=Hanan|last2=Schwab|first2=Hava|language=en|doi=10.1186/s11658-018-0121-1|pmc=6260892|pmid=30505323}}</ref> Prof Siobhán M. O'Connor,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases - Volume 12, Number 7—July 2006 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/7/06-0037_article|last=O'Connor|first=Siobhán M.|last2=Taylor|first2=Christopher E.|last3=Hughes|first3=James M.|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> Prof Steven S. Coughlin,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases|date=2012 Dec 9|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175921/|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=34|pages=7|last=Coughlin|first=Steven S.|language=en|doi=10.1007/BF03391675|pmc=4175921|pmid=25264396}}</ref> Prof Timothy J. Henrich,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Overview of Infection- Associated Chronic Illnesses|date=2024-04-03|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK602972/|last=National Academies of Sciences|first=Engineering|last2=Division|first2=Health and Medicine|last3=Policy|first3=Board on Health Sciences|last4=Health|first4=Board on Global|last5=Disorders|first5=Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System|last6=Threats|first6=Forum on Microbial|last7=Snair|first7=Megan|last8=Liao|first8=Julie|last9=Ashby|first9=Elizabeth|last10=Biffl|first10=Claire|language=en|publisher=National Academies Press (US)}}</ref> and Prof Wendy Bjerke.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings|date=2011-01-01|url=https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/pthms_fac/2|journal=All PTHMS Faculty Publications|volume=5|issue=1|last=Bjerke|first=Wendy|doi=10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.05}}</ref>

Note, however, that more than one causal factor may be involved in the onset and development of a chronic disease or cancer: an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are simultaneously present. An example of this arises in a mouse model of Crohn's disease, an illness that can be precipitated by a norovirus infection of the intestinal tissues, but only when both a specific gene variant is present, and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine|date=2010-06-25|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997/|journal=Cell|volume=141|issue=7|pages=1135–1145|last=Cadwell|first=Ken|last2=Patel|first2=Khushbu K.|last3=Maloney|first3=Nicole S.|last4=Liu|first4=Ta-Chiang|last5=Ng|first5=Aylwin C.Y.|last6=Storer|first6=Chad E.|last7=Head|first7=Richard D.|last8=Xavier|first8=Ramnik|last9=Stappenbeck|first9=Thaddeus S.|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009|pmc=2908380|pmid=20602997|issn=1097-4172}}</ref> Thus although a microbe may be the primary factor in the onset of diease, its ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon other causal factors.

Microbe-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.<ref name="Kockaya2010">{{Cite journal|title=What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures|date=2010-10-26|url=http://www.scirp.org/Journal/Paperabs.aspx?paperid=2817|journal=Health|volume=2|issue=10|pages=1174–1178|last=Kockaya|first=Guvenc|last2=Wertheimer|first2=Albert|language=en|doi=10.4236/health.2010.210172}}</ref> About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/default/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf|title=Almanac of Chronic Disease|last=Carmona|first=Richard H.|authorlink=|date=2009|website=|publisher=Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|at=Forward|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens==
In the following list of diseases linked to infectious microbes, there is a good possibility that the microbes might be causing the disease, but further research is needed to work out whether these microbes do play a causal role.

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to microbes, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of microbe-associated illnesses.
{| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0"
| style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''Microbes Linked to the Disease'''
|-
| '''Alzheimer's disease'''
| Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>, [[Helicobacter pylori]]<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and Fusobacterium nucleatum.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Periodontal Pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum Exacerbates Alzheimer’s Pathogenesis via Specific Pathways|date=2022 Jun 23|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9260256/|journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience|volume=14|pages=912709|last=Wu|first=Hongle|last2=Qiu|first2=Wei|last3=Zhu|first3=Xiaofang|last4=Li|first4=Xiangfen|last5=Xie|first5=Zhongcong|last6=Carreras|first6=Isabel|last7=Dedeoglu|first7=Alpaslan|last8=Dyke|first8=Thomas Van|last9=Han|first9=Yiping W.|last10=Karimbux|first10=Nadeem|last11=Tu|first11=Qisheng|language=en|doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.912709|pmc=9260256|pmid=35813949}}</ref> Alzheimer's is associated with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref>
Alzheimer's is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1 in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref> Alzheimer's has been linked to [[cytomegalovirus]] infection of the brain, which may enter the brain by travelling along the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alzheimer's disease-associated CD83(+) microglia are linked with increased immunoglobulin G4 and human cytomegalovirus in the gut, vagal nerve, and brain|date=2024-12-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39698934/|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association|last=Readhead|first=Benjamin P.|last2=Mastroeni|first2=Diego F.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi|last4=Sierra|first4=Maria A.|last5=de Ávila|first5=Camila|last6=Jimoh|first6=Tajudeen O.|last7=Haure-Mirande|first7=Jean-Vianney|last8=Atanasoff|first8=Kristina E.|last9=Nolz|first9=Jennifer|last10=Suazo|first10=Crystal|last11=Barton|first11=Nathaniel J.|doi=10.1002/alz.14401|pmid=39698934|issn=1552-5279}}</ref> The viruses [[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal|title=Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|date=Dec 2015|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|last=Pisa|first=Diana|authorlink=|last2=Alonso|first2=Ruth|authorlink2=|last3=Rábano|first3=Alberto|authorlink3=|last4=Rodal|first4=Izaskun|authorlink4=|last5=Carrasco|first5=Luis|authorlink5=|language=en|doi=10.1038/srep15015|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|issn=2045-2322|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]'''
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with retrovirus<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
|-
| '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]'''
| Infection with borrelia species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa.<ref name="pmid7943444" /> In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[Streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. Adolescent girls who had hospital-treated infections, or had less severe infections treated with anti-infective agents, were found to be at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Exposure to Infections in Childhood With Risk of Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls|date=2019 Apr 24|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6487907/|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=76|issue=8|pages=800|last=Breithaupt|first=Lauren|last2=Köhler-Forsberg|first2=Ole|last3=Larsen|first3=Janne Tidselbak|last4=Benros|first4=Michael E.|last5=Thornton|first5=Laura Marie|last6=Bulik|first6=Cynthia M.|last7=Petersen|first7=Liselotte|language=en|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0297|pmc=6487907|pmid=31017632}}</ref> [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" />
|-
| '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]'''
| Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Helicobacter pylori Infection with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|date=10 July 2024|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/9247586|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|last=Li|first=L|last2=Ren|first2=Y|doi=10.1155/2024/9247586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Helicobacter pylori infection association with anxiety in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms in Hadhramout|url=https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/helicobacter-pylori-infection-association-with-anxiety-in-patients-with-upper-gastrointestinal-symptoms-in-hadhramout-27168.html|journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Digestive Diseases|volume=8|issue=5|pages=daakeek|last=Ahmed M.|last2=Musiaan|first2=Nabeel S.|last3=Al-Zaazaai|first3=Ahmed}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Infection with Toxoplasma gondii increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study|date=2020 Jul 30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10317747/|journal=Parasitology|volume=147|issue=13|pages=1577|last=Lin|first=Hsin-An|last2=Chien|first2=Wu-Chien|last3=Huang|first3=Kuo-Yang|last4=Chung|first4=Chi-Hsiang|last5=Chen|first5=Lih-Chyang|last6=Lin|first6=Hsin-Chung|last7=Guo|first7=Jong-Long|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0031182020001183|pmc=10317747|pmid=32729456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Population-based cohort study of Toxoplasma gondii P22 antibody positivity correlation with anxiety|date=2024-08-15|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38729222/|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=359|pages=41–48|last=Yang|first=Lili|last2=Wang|first2=Biyun|last3=Wu|first3=Shuizhen|last4=Yang|first4=Zihan|last5=Xin|first5=Zixuan|last6=Zheng|first6=Shuyu|last7=Zou|first7=Weihao|last8=Zhang|first8=Chi|last9=Chen|first9=Jiating|last10=Peng|first10=Hongjuan|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.043|pmid=38729222|issn=1573-2517}}</ref> and associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref> Individuals with more attachment anxiety had higher EBV VCA IgG antibody titers.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Attachment anxiety is related to Epstein–Barr virus latency|date=2014-10|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4304069/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=41|pages=232–238|last=Fagundes|first=Christopher P.|last2=Jaremka|first2=Lisa M.|last3=Glaser|first3=Ronald|last4=Alfano|first4=Catherine M.|last5=Povoski|first5=Stephen P.|last6=Lipari|first6=Adele M.|last7=Agnese|first7=Doreen M.|last8=Yee|first8=Lisa D.|last9=Carson|first9=William E.|last10=Farrar|first10=William B.|last11=Malarkey|first11=William B.|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.04.002|pmc=4304069|issn=0889-1591}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Asthma]]'''
| Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref>
|-
| '''Atherosclerosis'''
| Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> Atherosclerosis is linked to the bacteria Helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref>
|-
| '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder'''
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[Streptococcus]], and with the viruses HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].
Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref>
|-
| '''Autism'''
| Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s'''
| Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases are linked to the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref>
|-
| '''Bipolar disorder'''
| Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Bipolar has been linked to Toxoplasma gondii and cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Serum antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii and Herpesvidae family viruses in individuals with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a case-control study|date=2011 Jul|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21991754/|journal=Ethiopian medical journal|volume=49|issue=3|language=en|issn=0014-1755}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Cancer]]'''
|Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to microbial causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the microbes currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some microbes proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to microbes that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

* '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref>
* '''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref>
* '''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by Schistosoma helminths,<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref> and BK virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The case for BK polyomavirus as a cause of bladder cancer|date=2019-12|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6901737/|journal=Current Opinion in Virology|volume=39|pages=8–15|last=Starrett|first=Gabriel J|last2=Buck|first2=Christopher B|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.coviro.2019.06.009|pmc=6901737|issn=1879-6257}}</ref>
* '''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref>
* '''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref>
* '''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref>
* '''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[Helicobacter pylori]], Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref>
* '''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref>
* '''Hodgkin's lymphoma''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref>
* '''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
* '''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref>
* '''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref>
* '''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
* '''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
* '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref>
* '''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
* '''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref>
* '''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.
* '''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with mumps virus.<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref>
* '''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref>
* '''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref>
* '''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref>
* '''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref>
* '''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref>
* '''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]'''
|Myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is primarily associated with two [[enterovirus]]es, namely [[Coxsackie B virus]] and [[echovirus]] (for references see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]); with three [[herpesviruses]], namely [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[cytomegalovirus]] and [[human herpesvirus 6]] (for references see [[list of herpesvirus infection studies]]); and with [[SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref>
More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6:58|access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after Giardia enteritis: clinical characteristics, disability and long-term sickness absence|date=2012-02-08|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22316329/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=12|pages=13|last=Naess|first=Halvor|last2=Nyland|first2=Morten|last3=Hausken|first3=Trygve|last4=Follestad|first4=Inghild|last5=Nyland|first5=Harald I.|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-12-13|pmc=3292445|pmid=22316329|issn=1471-230X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome 5 years after giardiasis: differential diagnoses, characteristics and natural course|date=2013-02-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399438/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=13|pages=28|last=Mørch|first=Kristine|last2=Hanevik|first2=Kurt|last3=Rivenes|first3=Ann C.|last4=Bødtker|first4=Jørn E.|last5=Næss|first5=Halvor|last6=Stubhaug|first6=Bjarte|last7=Wensaas|first7=Knut-Arne|last8=Rortveit|first8=Guri|last9=Eide|first9=Geir E.|last10=Hausken|first10=Trygve|last11=Langeland|first11=Nina|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-13-28|pmc=3598369|pmid=23399438|issn=1471-230X}}</ref> [[Ross River virus]] <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Changing epidemiology of Ross River virus disease in South Australia|date=1996-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8862330/|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=165|issue=6|pages=313–317|last=Selden|first=S. M.|last2=Cameron|first2=A. S.|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124989.x|pmid=8862330|issn=0025-729X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study|date=2006-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16950834/|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=333|issue=7568|pages=575|last=Hickie|first=Ian|last2=Davenport|first2=Tracey|last3=Wakefield|first3=Denis|last4=Vollmer-Conna|first4=Ute|last5=Cameron|first5=Barbara|last6=Vernon|first6=Suzanne D.|last7=Reeves|first7=William C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Andrew|last9=Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group|doi=10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE|pmc=1569956|pmid=16950834|issn=1756-1833}}</ref> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evaluation of Prolonged Fatigue Post–West Nile Virus Infection and Association of Fatigue with Elevated Antiviral and Proinflammatory Cytokines|date=2014-09-01|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4150370/|journal=Viral Immunology|volume=27|issue=7|pages=327–333|last=Garcia|first=Melissa N.|last2=Hause|first2=Anne M.|last3=Walker|first3=Christopher M.|last4=Orange|first4=Jordan S.|last5=Hasbun|first5=Rodrigo|last6=Murray|first6=Kristy O.|doi=10.1089/vim.2014.0035|pmc=4150370|pmid=25062274|issn=0882-8245}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic myocarditis'''
|Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease'''
|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Crohn's disease]]'''
|Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus Candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]] and Serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref> Crohn's disease development has been linked to commensal yeast Candida albicans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An immunological link between Candida albicans colonization and Crohn's disease|date=2015-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23855357/|journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology|volume=41|issue=2|pages=135–139|last=Gerard|first=Romain|last2=Sendid|first2=Boualem|last3=Colombel|first3=Jean-Frederic|last4=Poulain|first4=Daniel|last5=Jouault|first5=Thierry|doi=10.3109/1040841X.2013.810587|pmid=23855357|issn=1549-7828}}</ref> One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref> Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref> In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when all three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
|-
|'''Coronary heart disease'''
|Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dementia'''
|Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444" />
|-
|'''[[Depression]]'''
|Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> Depression is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and psychiatric disorders: a cross-sectional study in China|date=2022 Sep 5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9445102/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=15092|last=Liu|first=Taixiu|last2=Gao|first2=Peng|last3=Bu|first3=Deyun|last4=Liu|first4=Dong|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-16420-y|pmc=9445102|pmid=36064811}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref>

* '''[[depression|Major depressive disorder]]''' is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Cytomegalovirus antibodies are associated with mood disorders, suicide, markers of neuroinflammation, and microglia activation in postmortem brain samples|date=2023-06-30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10756933/|journal=Molecular Psychiatry|volume=28|issue=12|pages=5282–5292|last=Zheng|first=Haixia|last2=Webster|first2=Maree J.|last3=Weickert|first3=Cynthia Shannon|last4=Beasley|first4=Clare L.|last5=Paulus|first5=Martin P.|last6=Yolken|first6=Robert H.|last7=Savitz|first7=Jonathan|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41380-023-02162-4|pmc=10756933|issn=1359-4184}}</ref> [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> as well as [[Bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal | last = Schaller | first = James L. | last2 = Burkland | first2 = Glenn A. | last3 = Langhoff | first3 = P.J. | date = 2007-09-13 | title = Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3 | pages = 54|issn=1531-0132|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060}}</ref> and [[Borrelia]]<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria. Depression in children and adolescents is linked to prior acute enterovirus infection of the central nervous system.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association between depression and enterovirus infection|date=2017-02|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5293453/|journal=Medicine|volume=96|issue=5|pages=e5983|last=Liao|first=Yin-To|last2=Hsieh|first2=Ming-Hong|last3=Yang|first3=Yao-Hsu|last4=Wang|first4=Ying-Ching|last5=Tsai|first5=Ching-Shu|last6=Chen|first6=Vincent Chin-Hung|last7=Gossop|first7=Michael|language=en|doi=10.1097/MD.0000000000005983|pmc=5293453|issn=0025-7974}}</ref>
* '''Seasonal affective disorder''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]'''
|Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[Coxsackie B virus]] can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms.<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref>
Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref>

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family.
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]'''
|Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus.<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from a Staphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dilated cardiomyopathy'''
|Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref>
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|'''Epilepsy'''
|Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) infection of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref>
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|'''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]'''
|Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref>
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|'''[[Hypertension]]'''
|Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref>
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|'''Infertility'''
|Infertility is linked to an endometrium infection with [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus variant A (HHV-6A).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref>
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|'''[[Interstitial cystitis]]'''
|The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomaviruses, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> and treatment with the EBV antiviral valacyclovir results in clinical improvement in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary Viral Spectrum in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome and the Clinical Efficacy of Valacyclovir Treatment|date=2024-02-26|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38540138/|journal=Biomedicines|volume=12|issue=3|pages=522|last=Kuo|first=Hann-Chorng|last2=Peng|first2=Chih-Wen|last3=Jiang|first3=Yuan-Hong|last4=Jhang|first4=Jia-Fong|doi=10.3390/biomedicines12030522|pmc=10967905|pmid=38540138|issn=2227-9059}}</ref>
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|'''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]'''
|Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> IBS is linked to protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> IBS in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Lower back pain]]'''
|Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref>
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|'''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]'''
|Systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with the viruses Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|date=Sep 2006|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5|pages=462–467|last=James|first=Judith A.|last2=Harley|first2=John B.|last3=Scofield|first3=R. Hal|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|pmid=16896283|issn=1040-8711}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref> A study found that Epstein-Barr virus reprograms B-cells to cause autoimmune attacks.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus reprograms autoreactive B cells as antigen-presenting cells in systemic lupus erythematosus|date=2025-11-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41223250/|journal=Science Translational Medicine|volume=17|issue=824|last=Younis|first=Shady|last2=Moutusy|first2=Salvinaz I.|last3=Rasouli|first3=Sajede|last4=Jahanbani|first4=Shaghayegh|last5=Pandit|first5=Mahesh|last6=Wu|first6=Xiaohao|last7=Acharya|first7=Suman|last8=Sharpe|first8=Orr|last9=Wijeratne|first9=Tilini U.|last10=Harris|first10=Marlayna L.|last11=Yang|first11=Emily Y.|language=en|doi=10.1126/scitranslmed.ady0210|issn=1946-6234}}</ref>
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|'''Macular degeneration'''
|Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high cytomegalovirus antibody titers.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Metabolic syndrome]]'''
|Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and Helicobacter pylori. It is also linked to the viruses cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref>
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|'''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'''
|Multiple sclerosis is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus.<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> One study found EBV in the brain tissues of most ME patients.<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2|pages=e0192109|last=Hassani|first=Asma|last2=Corboy|first2=John R.|last3=Al-Salam|first3=Suhail|last4=Khan|first4=Gulfaraz|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> A landmark 2022 longitudinal study provided strong evidence that EBV is the leading cause of multiple sclerosis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Longitudinal analysis reveals high prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus associated with multiple sclerosis|date=2022-01-21|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35025605/|journal=Science|volume=375|issue=6578|pages=296–301|last=Bjornevik|first=Kjetil|last2=Cortese|first2=Marianna|last3=Healy|first3=Brian C.|last4=Kuhle|first4=Jens|last5=Mina|first5=Michael J.|last6=Leng|first6=Yumei|last7=Elledge|first7=Stephen J.|last8=Niebuhr|first8=David W.|last9=Scher|first9=Ann I.|last10=Munger|first10=Kassandra L.|last11=Ascherio|first11=Alberto|language=en|doi=10.1126/science.abj8222|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Multiple sclerosis is also linked to [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref>
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|'''Myocardial infarction'''
|Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of a sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref>
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|'''Myopia'''
|Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough) and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref>
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|'''[[Obesity]]'''
|Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Adenovirus 36 prevalence and association with human obesity: a systematic review|date=2021-03-22|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41366-021-00805-6|journal=International Journal of Obesity|volume=45|issue=6|pages=1342–1356|last=da Silva Fernandes|first=Jaime|last2=Schuelter-Trevisol|first2=Fabiana|last3=Cancelier|first3=Ana Carolina Lobor|last4=Gonçalves e Silva|first4=Helena Caetano|last5=de Sousa|first5=Daiana Gomes|last6=Atkinson|first6=Richard L.|last7=Trevisol|first7=Daisson José|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41366-021-00805-6|issn=0307-0565}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36, adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37 will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> It is known that adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref> Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref>
Obesity is associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium, [[Staphylococcus]], [[Streptococcus]], and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref>
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'''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]'''
|Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with Streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in adults with Lyme disease|date=2018-03|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29408088/|journal=General Hospital Psychiatry|volume=51|pages=85–89|last=Johnco|first=Carly|last2=Kugler|first2=Brittany B.|last3=Murphy|first3=Tanya K.|last4=Storch|first4=Eric A.|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2018.01.009|issn=0163-8343}}</ref> species bacteria.
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'''[[Panic disorder]]'''
|Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" />
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'''[[Parkinson's disease]]'''
|Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]],<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7|pages=302|last=Dourmashkin|first=Robert R.|last2=McCall|first2=Sherman A.|last3=Dourmashkin|first3=Neil|last4=Hannah|first4=Matthew J.|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977|issn=2046-1402}}</ref> Ljungan virus (from the picornavirus family),<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> and [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus.<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> Human pegivirus is found in the brains of 50% of Parkinson's patients, but is not found in the brains of controls.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Human pegivirus alters brain and blood immune and transcriptomic profiles of patients with Parkinson’s disease|date=2025-07-08|url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/189988|journal=JCI Insight|volume=10|issue=13|last=Hanson|first=Barbara A.|last2=Dang|first2=Xin|last3=Jamshidi|first3=Pouya|last4=Steffens|first4=Alicia|last5=Copenhaver|first5=Kaleigh|last6=Orban|first6=Zachary S.|last7=Bustos|first7=Bernabe|last8=Lubbe|first8=Stephen J.|last9=Castellani|first9=Rudolph J.|last10=Koralnik|first10=Igor J.|language=en|doi=10.1172/jci.insight.189988|issn=2379-3708}}</ref> Parkinson's is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref> Parkinson’s disease is linked to Streptococcus mutans in the gut; these bacteria produce imidazole propionate which is toxic to dopamine neurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gut microbial production of imidazole propionate drives Parkinson’s pathologies|date=2025-09-05|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63473-4|journal=Nature Communications|volume=16|issue=1|last=Park|first=Hyunji|last2=Cheon|first2=Jiwon|last3=Kim|first3=Hyojung|last4=kim|first4=Jihye|last5=Kim|first5=Jihyun|last6=Shin|first6=Jeong-Yong|last7=Kim|first7=Hyojin|last8=Ryu|first8=Gaeun|last9=Chung|first9=In Young|last10=Kim|first10=Ji Hun|last11=Kim|first11=Doeun|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41467-025-63473-4|pmc=12413466|issn=2041-1723}}</ref>
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'''Psoriasis'''
|Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref>
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'''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]'''
|Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and Proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[Borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref>
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'''[[Sarcoidosis]]'''
|Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref>
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'''Schizophrenia'''
|Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]].<ref name="pmid12857781" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name=":1" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> Borrelia,<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella henselae (the cause of cat scratch disease).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref>
One study found that a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found influenza virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk that the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref>

Individuals experiencing acute psychosis are nearly 11 times more likely to have a urinary tract infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary tract infections in acute psychosis|date=2014-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24499998/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=75|issue=4|pages=379–385|last=Graham|first=Krystle L.|last2=Carson|first2=Chelsea M.|last3=Ezeoke|first3=Amaka|last4=Buckley|first4=Peter F.|last5=Miller|first5=Brian J.|doi=10.4088/JCP.13m08469|pmid=24499998|issn=1555-2101}}</ref>
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'''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]'''
|Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the enterovirus [[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref>
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'''Stroke'''
|Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[Helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> Mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> Stroke is linked to [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus Histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref>
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'''Tourette syndrome'''
|Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[Streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref>
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|'''Valvular heart disease'''
|Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissues.
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'''Vasculitis'''
|Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.
|}

==How persistent microbes in the body may give rise to a disease==
Persistent microbes residing in the body can cause damage or dysfunction by numerous means:

* Microbes can infect and destroy host cells
* Microbes may secrete toxins, enzymes or metabolic by-products that damage host tissues or disrupt physiological processes
* Microbes may modify host gene expression
* Microbes may promote genetic mutations that lead to tumour development
* Microbes may induce a host immune response against them, causing collateral damage to the tissues
* Microbes may trigger autoimmunity leading to inflammatory damage to the body
* Microbial immune evasion tactics may lead to immune dysfunction (to aid their survival, all microbes living in the body engage in immune evasion, which involves the microbe synthesising immunomodulating proteins that thwart or disrupt immune system functioning)

==Difficulties in determining whether a pathogenic microbe might be causing a disease==
Determining whether a pathogenic microbe plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:
*The time between contracting the infectious microbe and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
*An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
*An infectious microbe may not cause its associated disease in every person.
*Only specific strains of a microbe may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).<ref name="Mechelli2015">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref>
*A given disease may be precipitated by more than one microbe.
*A microbe may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
*A microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
*Some microbes are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect microbes to a disease.
*For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
*A microbe may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the microbe.
In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large body of published studies demonstrating these associations.

==Notable studies==
*2000, [https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2000.0016 Infectious Causation of Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective] - Gregory Cochran, Paul W. Ewald ''et al''
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83689/ The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary] - Forum on Microbial Threats
*2004, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128097/ Virus-induced neurobehavioral disorders: mechanisms and implications] - Keizo Tomonaga
*2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011700/ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/eid/vol4no3/adobe/cassell.pdf Infectious Causes of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer] - Gail H. Cassell
*2006, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291059/ Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases] - Siobhán M O'Connor ''et al''
*2006, [[pmc:1479565/|The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers: it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human micro ecology and the nature of chronic disease]] - Caroline Hadley
*2008, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioral-psychiatric-au Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2010, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioural-psychiatric-a Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2011, [https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=jsbhs The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings] - Wendy Bjerke
*2012, [https://mpkb.org/home/pathogenesis/evidence_bacteria Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens] - Autoimmunity Research Foundation
*2012, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS407997/ Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases] - Steven S Coughlin
*2013, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23935899/ Causal Inference Regarding Infectious Aetiology of Chronic Conditions: A Systematic Review] - Sofia Orrskog ''et al''
*2023, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779437/ Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future] - Robert C Bransfield ''et al''
*2024, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349683/ Viral infections in etiology of mental disorders: a broad analysis of cytokine profile similarities – a narrative review] - Piotr Lorkiewicz ''et al''

==Articles and blogs==
*1999, [https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/0223102a.html Do Germs Cause Cancer?] - Forbes
*1999 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/a-new-germ-theory/377430/ A New Germ Theory] - The Atlantic Monthly Magazine
*1999, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199907/the-infection-connection The Infection Connection] - Psychology Today
*2005, [https://www.alzforum.org/webinars/pathogen-hypothesis-challenging-primacy-genetics-late-onset-alzheimer-disease?liveID=36 Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease] - Alzheimer Research Forum
*2008, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080522155752.htm The Emerging Role Of Infection In Alzheimer's Disease] - Science Daily
*2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230530004102/https://microbeminded.com/2017/11/11/interview-with-evolutionary-biologist-paul-ewald-infection-and-chronic-disease/ Interview With Evolutionary Biologist Paul Ewald] - Amy Proal
*2008, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infected-with-insanity/ Infected with Insanity: Could Microbes Cause Mental Illness?] - Scientific American
*2009, [https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-big-idea-that-might-beat-cancer-and-cut-health-care-costs-by-80-percent The Big Idea That Might Beat Cancer and Cut Health-Care Costs by 80 Percent] - Discover Magazine
*2010, [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/crohns-disease-triggers-may-include-viruses-other-factors Crohn’s Disease Triggers May Include Viruses and Other Factors] - National Institutes of Health
*2012, [https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-an-infection-suddenly-cause-ocd-201202274417 Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?] - Harvard Health Blog
*2012, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-perfectionists-handbook/201202/can-infections-result-in-mental-illness Can Infections Result in Mental Illness?] - Psychology Today
*2013, [https://www.medicaldaily.com/people-hospitalized-infections-are-62-more-likely-develop-mood-disorder-246876 People Hospitalized For Infections Are 62% More Likely To Develop A Mood Disorder] - Medical Daily
*2014, [https://www.livescience.com/43356-chronic-infections-cognitive-decline.html Chronic Infections Linked with Memory Problems Later in Life] - Live Science
*2015, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/05/150521095016.htm Infections can affect your IQ] - Science Daily
*2016, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q9zAG92V9M Toward a Unified, Evolutionary Theory of Cancer] - Paul Ewald: video on the infectious causes of cancer
*2019, [https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/psychiatric-disorders-are-infectious-agents-blame Psychiatric Disorders: Are Infectious Agents to Blame?] - Psychiatric Times
*2023, [https://www.mdedge.com/rheumatology/article/264214/long-covid/infection-related-chronic-illness-new-paradigm-research-and/page/0/1 Infection-related chronic illness: A new paradigm for research and treatment] - MDedge
*2023, [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/22/health/viral-infections-autoimmune-covid.html How Viral Infections Cause Long-Term Health Problems] - New York Tines

==Books==
*2002, [https://www.amazon.com/Plague-Time-Germ-Theory-Disease/dp/0385721846 Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease] - Paul W. Ewald
*2003, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714733_Microcompetition_with_Foreign_DNA_and_the_Origin_of_Chronic_Disease Microcompetition With Foreign DNA And the Origin of Chronic Disease] - Hanan Polansky
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561283/ Microbial Triggers of Chronic Human Illness] - American Society for Microbiology
*2006, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Potbelly-Syndrome-Obesity-Diabetes-Disease/dp/159120058X Potbelly Syndrome: How Common Germs Lead to Obesity, Diabetes and Heart Disease] - Russel Farris and Per Marin
*2008, [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5996250-stealth-germs-in-your-body Stealth Germs in Your Body] - Erno Daniel

==See also==
*[[Virus]]
*[[Pathogen]]s
*[[:Category:Triggers and risk factors|Triggers and risk factors (category)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Lists]]

List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

2025-12-30T05:19:09Z

Hip:added Streptococcus mutans link to Parkinson's

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogenic microbes. By this we mean that certain microbes are found in the bodies of patients with the disease much more frequently than in the bodies of healthy people.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Preface|language=en | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/ | date = 2004|publisher=National Academies Press (US) | last = Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats | last2 = Knobler | first2 = Stacey L. | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Siobhán | last4 = Lemon | first4 = Stanley M. | last5 = Najafi | first5 = Marjan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = O'Connor | first = Siobhán M. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Christopher E. | last3 = Hughes | first3 = James M. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16836820/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1051–1057|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> When a microbe such as a [[virus]], [[bacteria|bacterium]], [[fungus]] or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether that microbe might be the cause of the disease, or might in part be causing the disease in conjunction with other causal factors. There are several possible explanations for why a microbe may be associated with a disease:
* The microbe is an "innocent bystander", playing no causal role in the disease, but for some reason, the microbe is more prevalent in the diseased organs in patients with the illness, perhaps because the immune response is compromised in these diseased organs.
* The microbe causes the disease in tandem with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposures).
* The microbe is a singular cause of the disease.
Generally the idea that persistent microbial infections living the tissues and cells of the body might be the underlying cause of many chronic diseases and cancers has not gained widespread acceptance in the medical science community; however, more and more studies are finding microbial links to chronic illnesses.

==Pathogenic microbes as a cause of chronic diseases and cancers==
Two prominent advocates of the theory that microbes are the cause of numerous chronic diseases and cancers are evolutionary biologist [[wikipedia:Paul_W._Ewald|Professor Paul W. Ewald]], and physicist and anthropologist [[wikipedia:Gregory_Cochran|Dr Gregory Cochran]]. They posit that many chronic diseases and cancers whose etiology is currently unknown will, in the future, likely turn out to be caused by damaging effects from chronic microbial infections living in the body's tissues and cells.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=|title=Plague time: the new germ theory of disease|publisher=Anchor Books|date=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|first=Paul W.|last=Ewald|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease}}</ref><ref name="InfectiousCausation">{{Cite journal|title=Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective|date=2000|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10893730/|journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine|volume=43|issue=3|pages=406–448|last=Cochran|first=G.M.|last2=Ewald|first2=P.W.|last3=Cochran|first3=K.D.|doi=10.1353/pbm.2000.0016|pmid=10893730|issn=0031-5982}}</ref> This viewpoint sharply contrasts with traditional notions of disease etiology, that defective genes, diet, and lifestyle factors underpin disease.

Professor Ewald supports his thesis that germs, not genes, are the primary cause of illnesses with an argument from evolutionary biology: he explains that any faulty genes that cause disease and thus reduce survival and procreation will be rapidly eliminated from the gene pool within a few generations by means of evolutionary natural selection.<ref name="PlagueTime">{{Cite book|title=Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|language=en|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|last=Ewald|first=Paul W.|pages=56}}</ref> Faulty genes are therefore self-extinguishing, and because evolution filters out defective genes so effectively, one would not expect many diseases to result from genetic faults.

Professor Ewald points out that the only faulty genes that are likely to persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, he says the genes that encode for sickle cell disease are maintained and persist down the generations because although these genes are bad, they also protect against malaria, which is a compensating advantage.

Scientists once believed that defective genes would largely explain how most chronic diseases and cancers arise. This belief in part motivated the multi-billion investment in the Human Genome Project, the enterprise to map out all human genes and the entire human genome. But once the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, it soon became apparent that genes do not play a major role in the development of most diseases and cancers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/apr/17/human-genome-genetics-twin-studies|title=The failure of the genome|last=Latham|first=Jonathan|date=2011-04-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> One large meta-analysis found that for the vast majority of chronic diseases, the genetic contribution to the risk of developing the disease is only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191219142739.htm|title=Your DNA is not your destiny -- or a good predictor of your health|date=December 19, 2019|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pafron2019">{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk|date=2019|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31805043/|journal=PloS One|volume=14|issue=12|pages=e0220215|last=Patron|first=Jonas|last2=Serra-Cayuela|first2=Arnau|last3=Han|first3=Beomsoo|last4=Li|first4=Carin|last5=Wishart|first5=David Scott|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220215|pmc=6894795|pmid=31805043|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

Thus the Human Genome Project failed to live up to its hype, and failed to uncover the underlying causes of chronic diseases and cancers. But thanks to this project, we now know genetic factors are not major players in the triggering of disease. So if defective genes cannot explain how chronic diseases and cancers arise, we have to examine other possible causal factors that may be driving disease. When we look at the list of possible causal factors that might underpin disease, that list is short, it consists of: environmental toxins, radiations, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet, and lifestyle factors. There are not many options in that list, which thus brings renewed focus on the idea that infectious agents may be the key players in the development of disease.

Other researchers with an interest in the idea that infectious microbes may be the hidden cause of many chronic diseases and cancers include: Dr Hanan Polansky,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Latent viruses can cause disease by disrupting the competition for the limiting factor p300/CBP|date=2018 Nov 26|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6260892/|journal=Cellular & Molecular Biology Letters|volume=23|pages=56|last=Polansky|first=Hanan|last2=Schwab|first2=Hava|language=en|doi=10.1186/s11658-018-0121-1|pmc=6260892|pmid=30505323}}</ref> Prof Siobhán M. O'Connor,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases - Volume 12, Number 7—July 2006 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/7/06-0037_article|last=O'Connor|first=Siobhán M.|last2=Taylor|first2=Christopher E.|last3=Hughes|first3=James M.|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> Prof Steven S. Coughlin,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases|date=2012 Dec 9|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175921/|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=34|pages=7|last=Coughlin|first=Steven S.|language=en|doi=10.1007/BF03391675|pmc=4175921|pmid=25264396}}</ref> Prof Timothy J. Henrich,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Overview of Infection- Associated Chronic Illnesses|date=2024-04-03|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK602972/|last=National Academies of Sciences|first=Engineering|last2=Division|first2=Health and Medicine|last3=Policy|first3=Board on Health Sciences|last4=Health|first4=Board on Global|last5=Disorders|first5=Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System|last6=Threats|first6=Forum on Microbial|last7=Snair|first7=Megan|last8=Liao|first8=Julie|last9=Ashby|first9=Elizabeth|last10=Biffl|first10=Claire|language=en|publisher=National Academies Press (US)}}</ref> and Prof Wendy Bjerke.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings|date=2011-01-01|url=https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/pthms_fac/2|journal=All PTHMS Faculty Publications|volume=5|issue=1|last=Bjerke|first=Wendy|doi=10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.05}}</ref>

Note, however, that more than one causal factor may be involved in the onset and development of a chronic disease or cancer: an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are simultaneously present. An example of this arises in a mouse model of Crohn's disease, an illness that can be precipitated by a norovirus infection of the intestinal tissues, but only when both a specific gene variant is present, and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine|date=2010-06-25|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997/|journal=Cell|volume=141|issue=7|pages=1135–1145|last=Cadwell|first=Ken|last2=Patel|first2=Khushbu K.|last3=Maloney|first3=Nicole S.|last4=Liu|first4=Ta-Chiang|last5=Ng|first5=Aylwin C.Y.|last6=Storer|first6=Chad E.|last7=Head|first7=Richard D.|last8=Xavier|first8=Ramnik|last9=Stappenbeck|first9=Thaddeus S.|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009|pmc=2908380|pmid=20602997|issn=1097-4172}}</ref> Thus although a microbe may be the primary factor in the onset of diease, its ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon other causal factors.

Microbe-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.<ref name="Kockaya2010">{{Cite journal|title=What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures|date=2010-10-26|url=http://www.scirp.org/Journal/Paperabs.aspx?paperid=2817|journal=Health|volume=2|issue=10|pages=1174–1178|last=Kockaya|first=Guvenc|last2=Wertheimer|first2=Albert|language=en|doi=10.4236/health.2010.210172}}</ref> About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/default/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf|title=Almanac of Chronic Disease|last=Carmona|first=Richard H.|authorlink=|date=2009|website=|publisher=Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|at=Forward|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens==
In the following list of diseases linked to infectious microbes, there is a good possibility that the microbes might be causing the disease, but further research is needed to work out whether these microbes do play a causal role.

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to microbes, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of microbe-associated illnesses.
{| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0"
| style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''Microbes Linked to the Disease'''
|-
| '''Alzheimer's disease'''
| Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>, [[Helicobacter pylori]]<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and Fusobacterium nucleatum.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Periodontal Pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum Exacerbates Alzheimer’s Pathogenesis via Specific Pathways|date=2022 Jun 23|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9260256/|journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience|volume=14|pages=912709|last=Wu|first=Hongle|last2=Qiu|first2=Wei|last3=Zhu|first3=Xiaofang|last4=Li|first4=Xiangfen|last5=Xie|first5=Zhongcong|last6=Carreras|first6=Isabel|last7=Dedeoglu|first7=Alpaslan|last8=Dyke|first8=Thomas Van|last9=Han|first9=Yiping W.|last10=Karimbux|first10=Nadeem|last11=Tu|first11=Qisheng|language=en|doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.912709|pmc=9260256|pmid=35813949}}</ref> Alzheimer's is associated with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref>
Alzheimer's is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1 in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref> Alzheimer's has been linked to [[cytomegalovirus]] infection of the brain, which may enter the brain by travelling along the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alzheimer's disease-associated CD83(+) microglia are linked with increased immunoglobulin G4 and human cytomegalovirus in the gut, vagal nerve, and brain|date=2024-12-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39698934/|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association|last=Readhead|first=Benjamin P.|last2=Mastroeni|first2=Diego F.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi|last4=Sierra|first4=Maria A.|last5=de Ávila|first5=Camila|last6=Jimoh|first6=Tajudeen O.|last7=Haure-Mirande|first7=Jean-Vianney|last8=Atanasoff|first8=Kristina E.|last9=Nolz|first9=Jennifer|last10=Suazo|first10=Crystal|last11=Barton|first11=Nathaniel J.|doi=10.1002/alz.14401|pmid=39698934|issn=1552-5279}}</ref> The viruses [[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal|title=Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|date=Dec 2015|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|last=Pisa|first=Diana|authorlink=|last2=Alonso|first2=Ruth|authorlink2=|last3=Rábano|first3=Alberto|authorlink3=|last4=Rodal|first4=Izaskun|authorlink4=|last5=Carrasco|first5=Luis|authorlink5=|language=en|doi=10.1038/srep15015|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|issn=2045-2322|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]'''
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with retrovirus<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
|-
| '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]'''
| Infection with borrelia species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa.<ref name="pmid7943444" /> In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[Streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. Adolescent girls who had hospital-treated infections, or had less severe infections treated with anti-infective agents, were found to be at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Exposure to Infections in Childhood With Risk of Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls|date=2019 Apr 24|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6487907/|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=76|issue=8|pages=800|last=Breithaupt|first=Lauren|last2=Köhler-Forsberg|first2=Ole|last3=Larsen|first3=Janne Tidselbak|last4=Benros|first4=Michael E.|last5=Thornton|first5=Laura Marie|last6=Bulik|first6=Cynthia M.|last7=Petersen|first7=Liselotte|language=en|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0297|pmc=6487907|pmid=31017632}}</ref> [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" />
|-
| '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]'''
| Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Helicobacter pylori Infection with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|date=10 July 2024|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/9247586|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|last=Li|first=L|last2=Ren|first2=Y|doi=10.1155/2024/9247586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Helicobacter pylori infection association with anxiety in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms in Hadhramout|url=https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/helicobacter-pylori-infection-association-with-anxiety-in-patients-with-upper-gastrointestinal-symptoms-in-hadhramout-27168.html|journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Digestive Diseases|volume=8|issue=5|pages=daakeek|last=Ahmed M.|last2=Musiaan|first2=Nabeel S.|last3=Al-Zaazaai|first3=Ahmed}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Infection with Toxoplasma gondii increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study|date=2020 Jul 30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10317747/|journal=Parasitology|volume=147|issue=13|pages=1577|last=Lin|first=Hsin-An|last2=Chien|first2=Wu-Chien|last3=Huang|first3=Kuo-Yang|last4=Chung|first4=Chi-Hsiang|last5=Chen|first5=Lih-Chyang|last6=Lin|first6=Hsin-Chung|last7=Guo|first7=Jong-Long|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0031182020001183|pmc=10317747|pmid=32729456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Population-based cohort study of Toxoplasma gondii P22 antibody positivity correlation with anxiety|date=2024-08-15|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38729222/|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=359|pages=41–48|last=Yang|first=Lili|last2=Wang|first2=Biyun|last3=Wu|first3=Shuizhen|last4=Yang|first4=Zihan|last5=Xin|first5=Zixuan|last6=Zheng|first6=Shuyu|last7=Zou|first7=Weihao|last8=Zhang|first8=Chi|last9=Chen|first9=Jiating|last10=Peng|first10=Hongjuan|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.043|pmid=38729222|issn=1573-2517}}</ref> and associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Asthma]]'''
| Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref>
|-
| '''Atherosclerosis'''
| Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> Atherosclerosis is linked to the bacteria Helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref>
|-
| '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder'''
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[Streptococcus]], and with the viruses HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].
Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref>
|-
| '''Autism'''
| Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s'''
| Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases are linked to the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref>
|-
| '''Bipolar disorder'''
| Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Cancer]]'''
|Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to microbial causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the microbes currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some microbes proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to microbes that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

* '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref>
* '''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref>
* '''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by Schistosoma helminths,<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref> and BK virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The case for BK polyomavirus as a cause of bladder cancer|date=2019-12|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6901737/|journal=Current Opinion in Virology|volume=39|pages=8–15|last=Starrett|first=Gabriel J|last2=Buck|first2=Christopher B|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.coviro.2019.06.009|pmc=6901737|issn=1879-6257}}</ref>
* '''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref>
* '''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref>
* '''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref>
* '''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[Helicobacter pylori]], Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref>
* '''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref>
* '''Hodgkin's lymphoma''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref>
* '''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
* '''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref>
* '''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref>
* '''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
* '''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
* '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref>
* '''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
* '''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref>
* '''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.
* '''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with mumps virus.<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref>
* '''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref>
* '''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref>
* '''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref>
* '''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref>
* '''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref>
* '''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]'''
|Myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is primarily associated with two [[enterovirus]]es, namely [[Coxsackie B virus]] and [[echovirus]] (for references see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]); with three [[herpesviruses]], namely [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[cytomegalovirus]] and [[human herpesvirus 6]] (for references see [[list of herpesvirus infection studies]]); and with [[SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref>
More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6:58|access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after Giardia enteritis: clinical characteristics, disability and long-term sickness absence|date=2012-02-08|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22316329/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=12|pages=13|last=Naess|first=Halvor|last2=Nyland|first2=Morten|last3=Hausken|first3=Trygve|last4=Follestad|first4=Inghild|last5=Nyland|first5=Harald I.|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-12-13|pmc=3292445|pmid=22316329|issn=1471-230X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome 5 years after giardiasis: differential diagnoses, characteristics and natural course|date=2013-02-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399438/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=13|pages=28|last=Mørch|first=Kristine|last2=Hanevik|first2=Kurt|last3=Rivenes|first3=Ann C.|last4=Bødtker|first4=Jørn E.|last5=Næss|first5=Halvor|last6=Stubhaug|first6=Bjarte|last7=Wensaas|first7=Knut-Arne|last8=Rortveit|first8=Guri|last9=Eide|first9=Geir E.|last10=Hausken|first10=Trygve|last11=Langeland|first11=Nina|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-13-28|pmc=3598369|pmid=23399438|issn=1471-230X}}</ref> [[Ross River virus]] <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Changing epidemiology of Ross River virus disease in South Australia|date=1996-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8862330/|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=165|issue=6|pages=313–317|last=Selden|first=S. M.|last2=Cameron|first2=A. S.|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124989.x|pmid=8862330|issn=0025-729X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study|date=2006-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16950834/|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=333|issue=7568|pages=575|last=Hickie|first=Ian|last2=Davenport|first2=Tracey|last3=Wakefield|first3=Denis|last4=Vollmer-Conna|first4=Ute|last5=Cameron|first5=Barbara|last6=Vernon|first6=Suzanne D.|last7=Reeves|first7=William C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Andrew|last9=Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group|doi=10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE|pmc=1569956|pmid=16950834|issn=1756-1833}}</ref> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evaluation of Prolonged Fatigue Post–West Nile Virus Infection and Association of Fatigue with Elevated Antiviral and Proinflammatory Cytokines|date=2014-09-01|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4150370/|journal=Viral Immunology|volume=27|issue=7|pages=327–333|last=Garcia|first=Melissa N.|last2=Hause|first2=Anne M.|last3=Walker|first3=Christopher M.|last4=Orange|first4=Jordan S.|last5=Hasbun|first5=Rodrigo|last6=Murray|first6=Kristy O.|doi=10.1089/vim.2014.0035|pmc=4150370|pmid=25062274|issn=0882-8245}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic myocarditis'''
|Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease'''
|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Crohn's disease]]'''
|Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus Candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]] and Serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref> Crohn's disease development has been linked to commensal yeast Candida albicans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An immunological link between Candida albicans colonization and Crohn's disease|date=2015-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23855357/|journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology|volume=41|issue=2|pages=135–139|last=Gerard|first=Romain|last2=Sendid|first2=Boualem|last3=Colombel|first3=Jean-Frederic|last4=Poulain|first4=Daniel|last5=Jouault|first5=Thierry|doi=10.3109/1040841X.2013.810587|pmid=23855357|issn=1549-7828}}</ref> One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref> Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref> In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when all three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
|-
|'''Coronary heart disease'''
|Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dementia'''
|Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444" />
|-
|'''[[Depression]]'''
|Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> Depression is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and psychiatric disorders: a cross-sectional study in China|date=2022 Sep 5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9445102/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=15092|last=Liu|first=Taixiu|last2=Gao|first2=Peng|last3=Bu|first3=Deyun|last4=Liu|first4=Dong|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-16420-y|pmc=9445102|pmid=36064811}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref>

* '''[[depression|Major depressive disorder]]''' is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> as well as [[Bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal | last = Schaller | first = James L. | last2 = Burkland | first2 = Glenn A. | last3 = Langhoff | first3 = P.J. | date = 2007-09-13 | title = Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3 | pages = 54|issn=1531-0132|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060}}</ref> and [[Borrelia]]<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
* '''Seasonal affective disorder''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]'''
|Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[Coxsackie B virus]] can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms.<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref>
Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref>

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family.
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]'''
|Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus.<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from a Staphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dilated cardiomyopathy'''
|Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref>
|-
|'''Epilepsy'''
|Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) infection of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]'''
|Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref>
|-
|'''[[Hypertension]]'''
|Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref>
|-
|'''Infertility'''
|Infertility is linked to an endometrium infection with [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus variant A (HHV-6A).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Interstitial cystitis]]'''
|The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomaviruses, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> and treatment with the EBV antiviral valacyclovir results in clinical improvement in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary Viral Spectrum in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome and the Clinical Efficacy of Valacyclovir Treatment|date=2024-02-26|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38540138/|journal=Biomedicines|volume=12|issue=3|pages=522|last=Kuo|first=Hann-Chorng|last2=Peng|first2=Chih-Wen|last3=Jiang|first3=Yuan-Hong|last4=Jhang|first4=Jia-Fong|doi=10.3390/biomedicines12030522|pmc=10967905|pmid=38540138|issn=2227-9059}}</ref>
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|'''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]'''
|Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> IBS is linked to protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> IBS in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Lower back pain]]'''
|Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]'''
|Systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with the viruses Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|date=Sep 2006|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5|pages=462–467|last=James|first=Judith A.|last2=Harley|first2=John B.|last3=Scofield|first3=R. Hal|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|pmid=16896283|issn=1040-8711}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref> A study found that Epstein-Barr virus reprograms B-cells to cause autoimmune attacks.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus reprograms autoreactive B cells as antigen-presenting cells in systemic lupus erythematosus|date=2025-11-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41223250/|journal=Science Translational Medicine|volume=17|issue=824|last=Younis|first=Shady|last2=Moutusy|first2=Salvinaz I.|last3=Rasouli|first3=Sajede|last4=Jahanbani|first4=Shaghayegh|last5=Pandit|first5=Mahesh|last6=Wu|first6=Xiaohao|last7=Acharya|first7=Suman|last8=Sharpe|first8=Orr|last9=Wijeratne|first9=Tilini U.|last10=Harris|first10=Marlayna L.|last11=Yang|first11=Emily Y.|language=en|doi=10.1126/scitranslmed.ady0210|issn=1946-6234}}</ref>
|-
|'''Macular degeneration'''
|Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high cytomegalovirus antibody titers.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Metabolic syndrome]]'''
|Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and Helicobacter pylori. It is also linked to the viruses cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref>
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|'''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'''
|Multiple sclerosis is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus.<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> One study found EBV in the brain tissues of most ME patients.<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2|pages=e0192109|last=Hassani|first=Asma|last2=Corboy|first2=John R.|last3=Al-Salam|first3=Suhail|last4=Khan|first4=Gulfaraz|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> A landmark 2022 longitudinal study provided strong evidence that EBV is the leading cause of multiple sclerosis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Longitudinal analysis reveals high prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus associated with multiple sclerosis|date=2022-01-21|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35025605/|journal=Science|volume=375|issue=6578|pages=296–301|last=Bjornevik|first=Kjetil|last2=Cortese|first2=Marianna|last3=Healy|first3=Brian C.|last4=Kuhle|first4=Jens|last5=Mina|first5=Michael J.|last6=Leng|first6=Yumei|last7=Elledge|first7=Stephen J.|last8=Niebuhr|first8=David W.|last9=Scher|first9=Ann I.|last10=Munger|first10=Kassandra L.|last11=Ascherio|first11=Alberto|language=en|doi=10.1126/science.abj8222|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Multiple sclerosis is also linked to [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref>
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|'''Myocardial infarction'''
|Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of a sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref>
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|'''Myopia'''
|Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough) and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref>
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|'''[[Obesity]]'''
|Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Adenovirus 36 prevalence and association with human obesity: a systematic review|date=2021-03-22|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41366-021-00805-6|journal=International Journal of Obesity|volume=45|issue=6|pages=1342–1356|last=da Silva Fernandes|first=Jaime|last2=Schuelter-Trevisol|first2=Fabiana|last3=Cancelier|first3=Ana Carolina Lobor|last4=Gonçalves e Silva|first4=Helena Caetano|last5=de Sousa|first5=Daiana Gomes|last6=Atkinson|first6=Richard L.|last7=Trevisol|first7=Daisson José|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41366-021-00805-6|issn=0307-0565}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36, adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37 will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> It is known that adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref> Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref>
Obesity is associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium, [[Staphylococcus]], [[Streptococcus]], and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref>
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'''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]'''
|Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with Streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
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'''[[Panic disorder]]'''
|Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" />
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'''[[Parkinson's disease]]'''
|Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]],<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7|pages=302|last=Dourmashkin|first=Robert R.|last2=McCall|first2=Sherman A.|last3=Dourmashkin|first3=Neil|last4=Hannah|first4=Matthew J.|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977|issn=2046-1402}}</ref> Ljungan virus (from the picornavirus family),<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> and [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus.<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> Human pegivirus is found in the brains of 50% of Parkinson's patients, but is not found in the brains of controls.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Human pegivirus alters brain and blood immune and transcriptomic profiles of patients with Parkinson’s disease|date=2025-07-08|url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/189988|journal=JCI Insight|volume=10|issue=13|last=Hanson|first=Barbara A.|last2=Dang|first2=Xin|last3=Jamshidi|first3=Pouya|last4=Steffens|first4=Alicia|last5=Copenhaver|first5=Kaleigh|last6=Orban|first6=Zachary S.|last7=Bustos|first7=Bernabe|last8=Lubbe|first8=Stephen J.|last9=Castellani|first9=Rudolph J.|last10=Koralnik|first10=Igor J.|language=en|doi=10.1172/jci.insight.189988|issn=2379-3708}}</ref> Parkinson's is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref> Parkinson’s disease is linked to Streptococcus mutans in the gut; these bacteria produce imidazole propionate which is toxic to dopamine neurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gut microbial production of imidazole propionate drives Parkinson’s pathologies|date=2025-09-05|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63473-4|journal=Nature Communications|volume=16|issue=1|last=Park|first=Hyunji|last2=Cheon|first2=Jiwon|last3=Kim|first3=Hyojung|last4=kim|first4=Jihye|last5=Kim|first5=Jihyun|last6=Shin|first6=Jeong-Yong|last7=Kim|first7=Hyojin|last8=Ryu|first8=Gaeun|last9=Chung|first9=In Young|last10=Kim|first10=Ji Hun|last11=Kim|first11=Doeun|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41467-025-63473-4|pmc=12413466|issn=2041-1723}}</ref>
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'''Psoriasis'''
|Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref>
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'''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]'''
|Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and Proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[Borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref>
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'''[[Sarcoidosis]]'''
|Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref>
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'''Schizophrenia'''
|Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]].<ref name="pmid12857781" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name=":1" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> Borrelia,<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella henselae (the cause of cat scratch disease).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref>
One study found that a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found influenza virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk that the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref>

Individuals experiencing acute psychosis are nearly 11 times more likely to have a urinary tract infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary tract infections in acute psychosis|date=2014-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24499998/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=75|issue=4|pages=379–385|last=Graham|first=Krystle L.|last2=Carson|first2=Chelsea M.|last3=Ezeoke|first3=Amaka|last4=Buckley|first4=Peter F.|last5=Miller|first5=Brian J.|doi=10.4088/JCP.13m08469|pmid=24499998|issn=1555-2101}}</ref>
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'''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]'''
|Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the enterovirus [[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref>
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'''Stroke'''
|Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[Helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> Mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> Stroke is linked to [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus Histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref>
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'''Tourette syndrome'''
|Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[Streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref>
|-
|'''Valvular heart disease'''
|Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissues.
|-
|
'''Vasculitis'''
|Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.
|}

==How persistent microbes in the body may give rise to a disease==
Persistent microbes residing in the body can cause damage or dysfunction by numerous means:

* Microbes can infect and destroy host cells
* Microbes may secrete toxins, enzymes or metabolic by-products that damage host tissues or disrupt physiological processes
* Microbes may modify host gene expression
* Microbes may promote genetic mutations that lead to tumour development
* Microbes may induce a host immune response against them, causing collateral damage to the tissues
* Microbes may trigger autoimmunity leading to inflammatory damage to the body
* Microbial immune evasion tactics may lead to immune dysfunction (to aid their survival, all microbes living in the body engage in immune evasion, which involves the microbe synthesising immunomodulating proteins that thwart or disrupt immune system functioning)

==Difficulties in determining whether a pathogenic microbe might be causing a disease==
Determining whether a pathogenic microbe plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:
*The time between contracting the infectious microbe and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
*An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
*An infectious microbe may not cause its associated disease in every person.
*Only specific strains of a microbe may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).<ref name="Mechelli2015">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref>
*A given disease may be precipitated by more than one microbe.
*A microbe may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
*A microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
*Some microbes are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect microbes to a disease.
*For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
*A microbe may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the microbe.
In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large body of published studies demonstrating these associations.

==Notable studies==
*2000, [https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2000.0016 Infectious Causation of Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective] - Gregory Cochran, Paul W. Ewald ''et al''
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83689/ The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary] - Forum on Microbial Threats
*2004, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128097/ Virus-induced neurobehavioral disorders: mechanisms and implications] - Keizo Tomonaga
*2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011700/ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/eid/vol4no3/adobe/cassell.pdf Infectious Causes of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer] - Gail H. Cassell
*2006, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291059/ Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases] - Siobhán M O'Connor ''et al''
*2006, [[pmc:1479565/|The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers: it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human micro ecology and the nature of chronic disease]] - Caroline Hadley
*2008, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioral-psychiatric-au Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2010, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioural-psychiatric-a Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2011, [https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=jsbhs The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings] - Wendy Bjerke
*2012, [https://mpkb.org/home/pathogenesis/evidence_bacteria Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens] - Autoimmunity Research Foundation
*2012, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS407997/ Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases] - Steven S Coughlin
*2013, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23935899/ Causal Inference Regarding Infectious Aetiology of Chronic Conditions: A Systematic Review] - Sofia Orrskog ''et al''
*2023, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779437/ Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future] - Robert C Bransfield ''et al''
*2024, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349683/ Viral infections in etiology of mental disorders: a broad analysis of cytokine profile similarities – a narrative review] - Piotr Lorkiewicz ''et al''

==Articles and blogs==
*1999, [https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/0223102a.html Do Germs Cause Cancer?] - Forbes
*1999 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/a-new-germ-theory/377430/ A New Germ Theory] - The Atlantic Monthly Magazine
*1999, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199907/the-infection-connection The Infection Connection] - Psychology Today
*2005, [https://www.alzforum.org/webinars/pathogen-hypothesis-challenging-primacy-genetics-late-onset-alzheimer-disease?liveID=36 Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease] - Alzheimer Research Forum
*2008, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080522155752.htm The Emerging Role Of Infection In Alzheimer's Disease] - Science Daily
*2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230530004102/https://microbeminded.com/2017/11/11/interview-with-evolutionary-biologist-paul-ewald-infection-and-chronic-disease/ Interview With Evolutionary Biologist Paul Ewald] - Amy Proal
*2008, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infected-with-insanity/ Infected with Insanity: Could Microbes Cause Mental Illness?] - Scientific American
*2009, [https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-big-idea-that-might-beat-cancer-and-cut-health-care-costs-by-80-percent The Big Idea That Might Beat Cancer and Cut Health-Care Costs by 80 Percent] - Discover Magazine
*2010, [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/crohns-disease-triggers-may-include-viruses-other-factors Crohn’s Disease Triggers May Include Viruses and Other Factors] - National Institutes of Health
*2012, [https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-an-infection-suddenly-cause-ocd-201202274417 Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?] - Harvard Health Blog
*2012, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-perfectionists-handbook/201202/can-infections-result-in-mental-illness Can Infections Result in Mental Illness?] - Psychology Today
*2013, [https://www.medicaldaily.com/people-hospitalized-infections-are-62-more-likely-develop-mood-disorder-246876 People Hospitalized For Infections Are 62% More Likely To Develop A Mood Disorder] - Medical Daily
*2014, [https://www.livescience.com/43356-chronic-infections-cognitive-decline.html Chronic Infections Linked with Memory Problems Later in Life] - Live Science
*2015, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/05/150521095016.htm Infections can affect your IQ] - Science Daily
*2016, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q9zAG92V9M Toward a Unified, Evolutionary Theory of Cancer] - Paul Ewald: video on the infectious causes of cancer
*2019, [https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/psychiatric-disorders-are-infectious-agents-blame Psychiatric Disorders: Are Infectious Agents to Blame?] - Psychiatric Times
*2023, [https://www.mdedge.com/rheumatology/article/264214/long-covid/infection-related-chronic-illness-new-paradigm-research-and/page/0/1 Infection-related chronic illness: A new paradigm for research and treatment] - MDedge
*2023, [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/22/health/viral-infections-autoimmune-covid.html How Viral Infections Cause Long-Term Health Problems] - New York Tines

==Books==
*2002, [https://www.amazon.com/Plague-Time-Germ-Theory-Disease/dp/0385721846 Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease] - Paul W. Ewald
*2003, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714733_Microcompetition_with_Foreign_DNA_and_the_Origin_of_Chronic_Disease Microcompetition With Foreign DNA And the Origin of Chronic Disease] - Hanan Polansky
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561283/ Microbial Triggers of Chronic Human Illness] - American Society for Microbiology
*2006, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Potbelly-Syndrome-Obesity-Diabetes-Disease/dp/159120058X Potbelly Syndrome: How Common Germs Lead to Obesity, Diabetes and Heart Disease] - Russel Farris and Per Marin
*2008, [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5996250-stealth-germs-in-your-body Stealth Germs in Your Body] - Erno Daniel

==See also==
*[[Virus]]
*[[Pathogen]]s
*[[:Category:Triggers and risk factors|Triggers and risk factors (category)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Lists]]

List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

2025-12-04T05:11:03Z

Hip:Added BK virus bladder cancer cause

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogenic microbes. By this we mean that certain microbes are found in the bodies of patients with the disease much more frequently than in the bodies of healthy people.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Preface|language=en | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/ | date = 2004|publisher=National Academies Press (US) | last = Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats | last2 = Knobler | first2 = Stacey L. | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Siobhán | last4 = Lemon | first4 = Stanley M. | last5 = Najafi | first5 = Marjan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = O'Connor | first = Siobhán M. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Christopher E. | last3 = Hughes | first3 = James M. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16836820/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1051–1057|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> When a microbe such as a [[virus]], [[bacteria|bacterium]], [[fungus]] or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether that microbe might be the cause of the disease, or might in part be causing the disease in conjunction with other causal factors. There are several possible explanations for why a microbe may be associated with a disease:
* The microbe is an "innocent bystander", playing no causal role in the disease, but for some reason, the microbe is more prevalent in the diseased organs in patients with the illness, perhaps because the immune response is compromised in these diseased organs.
* The microbe causes the disease in tandem with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposures).
* The microbe is a singular cause of the disease.
Generally the idea that persistent microbial infections living the tissues and cells of the body might be the underlying cause of many chronic diseases and cancers has not gained widespread acceptance in the medical science community; however, more and more studies are finding microbial links to chronic illnesses.

==Pathogenic microbes as a cause of chronic diseases and cancers==
Two prominent advocates of the theory that microbes are the cause of numerous chronic diseases and cancers are evolutionary biologist [[wikipedia:Paul_W._Ewald|Professor Paul W. Ewald]], and physicist and anthropologist [[wikipedia:Gregory_Cochran|Dr Gregory Cochran]]. They posit that many chronic diseases and cancers whose etiology is currently unknown will, in the future, likely turn out to be caused by damaging effects from chronic microbial infections living in the body's tissues and cells.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=|title=Plague time: the new germ theory of disease|publisher=Anchor Books|date=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|first=Paul W.|last=Ewald|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease}}</ref><ref name="InfectiousCausation">{{Cite journal|title=Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective|date=2000|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10893730/|journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine|volume=43|issue=3|pages=406–448|last=Cochran|first=G.M.|last2=Ewald|first2=P.W.|last3=Cochran|first3=K.D.|doi=10.1353/pbm.2000.0016|pmid=10893730|issn=0031-5982}}</ref> This viewpoint sharply contrasts with traditional notions of disease etiology, that defective genes, diet, and lifestyle factors underpin disease.

Professor Ewald supports his thesis that germs, not genes, are the primary cause of illnesses with an argument from evolutionary biology: he explains that any faulty genes that cause disease and thus reduce survival and procreation will be rapidly eliminated from the gene pool within a few generations by means of evolutionary natural selection.<ref name="PlagueTime">{{Cite book|title=Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|language=en|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|last=Ewald|first=Paul W.|pages=56}}</ref> Faulty genes are therefore self-extinguishing, and because evolution filters out defective genes so effectively, one would not expect many diseases to result from genetic faults.

Professor Ewald points out that the only faulty genes that are likely to persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, he says the genes that encode for sickle cell disease are maintained and persist down the generations because although these genes are bad, they also protect against malaria, which is a compensating advantage.

Scientists once believed that defective genes would largely explain how most chronic diseases and cancers arise. This belief in part motivated the multi-billion investment in the Human Genome Project, the enterprise to map out all human genes and the entire human genome. But once the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, it soon became apparent that genes do not play a major role in the development of most diseases and cancers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/apr/17/human-genome-genetics-twin-studies|title=The failure of the genome|last=Latham|first=Jonathan|date=2011-04-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> One large meta-analysis found that for the vast majority of chronic diseases, the genetic contribution to the risk of developing the disease is only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191219142739.htm|title=Your DNA is not your destiny -- or a good predictor of your health|date=December 19, 2019|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pafron2019">{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk|date=2019|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31805043/|journal=PloS One|volume=14|issue=12|pages=e0220215|last=Patron|first=Jonas|last2=Serra-Cayuela|first2=Arnau|last3=Han|first3=Beomsoo|last4=Li|first4=Carin|last5=Wishart|first5=David Scott|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220215|pmc=6894795|pmid=31805043|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

Thus the Human Genome Project failed to live up to its hype, and failed to uncover the underlying causes of chronic diseases and cancers. But thanks to this project, we now know genetic factors are not major players in the triggering of disease. So if defective genes cannot explain how chronic diseases and cancers arise, we have to examine other possible causal factors that may be driving disease. When we look at the list of possible causal factors that might underpin disease, that list is short, it consists of: environmental toxins, radiations, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet, and lifestyle factors. There are not many options in that list, which thus brings renewed focus on the idea that infectious agents may be the key players in the development of disease.

Other researchers with an interest in the idea that infectious microbes may be the hidden cause of many chronic diseases and cancers include: Dr Hanan Polansky,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Latent viruses can cause disease by disrupting the competition for the limiting factor p300/CBP|date=2018 Nov 26|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6260892/|journal=Cellular & Molecular Biology Letters|volume=23|pages=56|last=Polansky|first=Hanan|last2=Schwab|first2=Hava|language=en|doi=10.1186/s11658-018-0121-1|pmc=6260892|pmid=30505323}}</ref> Prof Siobhán M. O'Connor,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases - Volume 12, Number 7—July 2006 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/7/06-0037_article|last=O'Connor|first=Siobhán M.|last2=Taylor|first2=Christopher E.|last3=Hughes|first3=James M.|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> Prof Steven S. Coughlin,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases|date=2012 Dec 9|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175921/|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=34|pages=7|last=Coughlin|first=Steven S.|language=en|doi=10.1007/BF03391675|pmc=4175921|pmid=25264396}}</ref> Prof Timothy J. Henrich,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Overview of Infection- Associated Chronic Illnesses|date=2024-04-03|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK602972/|last=National Academies of Sciences|first=Engineering|last2=Division|first2=Health and Medicine|last3=Policy|first3=Board on Health Sciences|last4=Health|first4=Board on Global|last5=Disorders|first5=Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System|last6=Threats|first6=Forum on Microbial|last7=Snair|first7=Megan|last8=Liao|first8=Julie|last9=Ashby|first9=Elizabeth|last10=Biffl|first10=Claire|language=en|publisher=National Academies Press (US)}}</ref> and Prof Wendy Bjerke.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings|date=2011-01-01|url=https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/pthms_fac/2|journal=All PTHMS Faculty Publications|volume=5|issue=1|last=Bjerke|first=Wendy|doi=10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.05}}</ref>

Note, however, that more than one causal factor may be involved in the onset and development of a chronic disease or cancer: an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are simultaneously present. An example of this arises in a mouse model of Crohn's disease, an illness that can be precipitated by a norovirus infection of the intestinal tissues, but only when both a specific gene variant is present, and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine|date=2010-06-25|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997/|journal=Cell|volume=141|issue=7|pages=1135–1145|last=Cadwell|first=Ken|last2=Patel|first2=Khushbu K.|last3=Maloney|first3=Nicole S.|last4=Liu|first4=Ta-Chiang|last5=Ng|first5=Aylwin C.Y.|last6=Storer|first6=Chad E.|last7=Head|first7=Richard D.|last8=Xavier|first8=Ramnik|last9=Stappenbeck|first9=Thaddeus S.|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009|pmc=2908380|pmid=20602997|issn=1097-4172}}</ref> Thus although a microbe may be the primary factor in the onset of diease, its ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon other causal factors.

Microbe-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.<ref name="Kockaya2010">{{Cite journal|title=What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures|date=2010-10-26|url=http://www.scirp.org/Journal/Paperabs.aspx?paperid=2817|journal=Health|volume=2|issue=10|pages=1174–1178|last=Kockaya|first=Guvenc|last2=Wertheimer|first2=Albert|language=en|doi=10.4236/health.2010.210172}}</ref> About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/default/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf|title=Almanac of Chronic Disease|last=Carmona|first=Richard H.|authorlink=|date=2009|website=|publisher=Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|at=Forward|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens==
In the following list of diseases linked to infectious microbes, there is a good possibility that the microbes might be causing the disease, but further research is needed to work out whether these microbes do play a causal role.

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to microbes, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of microbe-associated illnesses.
{| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0"
| style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''Microbes Linked to the Disease'''
|-
| '''Alzheimer's disease'''
| Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>, [[Helicobacter pylori]]<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and Fusobacterium nucleatum.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Periodontal Pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum Exacerbates Alzheimer’s Pathogenesis via Specific Pathways|date=2022 Jun 23|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9260256/|journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience|volume=14|pages=912709|last=Wu|first=Hongle|last2=Qiu|first2=Wei|last3=Zhu|first3=Xiaofang|last4=Li|first4=Xiangfen|last5=Xie|first5=Zhongcong|last6=Carreras|first6=Isabel|last7=Dedeoglu|first7=Alpaslan|last8=Dyke|first8=Thomas Van|last9=Han|first9=Yiping W.|last10=Karimbux|first10=Nadeem|last11=Tu|first11=Qisheng|language=en|doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.912709|pmc=9260256|pmid=35813949}}</ref> Alzheimer's is associated with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref>
Alzheimer's is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1 in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref> Alzheimer's has been linked to [[cytomegalovirus]] infection of the brain, which may enter the brain by travelling along the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alzheimer's disease-associated CD83(+) microglia are linked with increased immunoglobulin G4 and human cytomegalovirus in the gut, vagal nerve, and brain|date=2024-12-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39698934/|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association|last=Readhead|first=Benjamin P.|last2=Mastroeni|first2=Diego F.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi|last4=Sierra|first4=Maria A.|last5=de Ávila|first5=Camila|last6=Jimoh|first6=Tajudeen O.|last7=Haure-Mirande|first7=Jean-Vianney|last8=Atanasoff|first8=Kristina E.|last9=Nolz|first9=Jennifer|last10=Suazo|first10=Crystal|last11=Barton|first11=Nathaniel J.|doi=10.1002/alz.14401|pmid=39698934|issn=1552-5279}}</ref> The viruses [[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal|title=Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|date=Dec 2015|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|last=Pisa|first=Diana|authorlink=|last2=Alonso|first2=Ruth|authorlink2=|last3=Rábano|first3=Alberto|authorlink3=|last4=Rodal|first4=Izaskun|authorlink4=|last5=Carrasco|first5=Luis|authorlink5=|language=en|doi=10.1038/srep15015|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|issn=2045-2322|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]'''
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with retrovirus<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
|-
| '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]'''
| Infection with borrelia species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa.<ref name="pmid7943444" /> In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[Streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. Adolescent girls who had hospital-treated infections, or had less severe infections treated with anti-infective agents, were found to be at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Exposure to Infections in Childhood With Risk of Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls|date=2019 Apr 24|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6487907/|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=76|issue=8|pages=800|last=Breithaupt|first=Lauren|last2=Köhler-Forsberg|first2=Ole|last3=Larsen|first3=Janne Tidselbak|last4=Benros|first4=Michael E.|last5=Thornton|first5=Laura Marie|last6=Bulik|first6=Cynthia M.|last7=Petersen|first7=Liselotte|language=en|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0297|pmc=6487907|pmid=31017632}}</ref> [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" />
|-
| '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]'''
| Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Helicobacter pylori Infection with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|date=10 July 2024|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/9247586|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|last=Li|first=L|last2=Ren|first2=Y|doi=10.1155/2024/9247586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Helicobacter pylori infection association with anxiety in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms in Hadhramout|url=https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/helicobacter-pylori-infection-association-with-anxiety-in-patients-with-upper-gastrointestinal-symptoms-in-hadhramout-27168.html|journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Digestive Diseases|volume=8|issue=5|pages=daakeek|last=Ahmed M.|last2=Musiaan|first2=Nabeel S.|last3=Al-Zaazaai|first3=Ahmed}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Infection with Toxoplasma gondii increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study|date=2020 Jul 30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10317747/|journal=Parasitology|volume=147|issue=13|pages=1577|last=Lin|first=Hsin-An|last2=Chien|first2=Wu-Chien|last3=Huang|first3=Kuo-Yang|last4=Chung|first4=Chi-Hsiang|last5=Chen|first5=Lih-Chyang|last6=Lin|first6=Hsin-Chung|last7=Guo|first7=Jong-Long|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0031182020001183|pmc=10317747|pmid=32729456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Population-based cohort study of Toxoplasma gondii P22 antibody positivity correlation with anxiety|date=2024-08-15|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38729222/|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=359|pages=41–48|last=Yang|first=Lili|last2=Wang|first2=Biyun|last3=Wu|first3=Shuizhen|last4=Yang|first4=Zihan|last5=Xin|first5=Zixuan|last6=Zheng|first6=Shuyu|last7=Zou|first7=Weihao|last8=Zhang|first8=Chi|last9=Chen|first9=Jiating|last10=Peng|first10=Hongjuan|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.043|pmid=38729222|issn=1573-2517}}</ref> and associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Asthma]]'''
| Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref>
|-
| '''Atherosclerosis'''
| Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> Atherosclerosis is linked to the bacteria Helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref>
|-
| '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder'''
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[Streptococcus]], and with the viruses HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].
Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref>
|-
| '''Autism'''
| Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s'''
| Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases are linked to the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref>
|-
| '''Bipolar disorder'''
| Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Cancer]]'''
|Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to microbial causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the microbes currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some microbes proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to microbes that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

* '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref>
* '''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref>
* '''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by Schistosoma helminths,<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref> and BK virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The case for BK polyomavirus as a cause of bladder cancer|date=2019-12|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6901737/|journal=Current Opinion in Virology|volume=39|pages=8–15|last=Starrett|first=Gabriel J|last2=Buck|first2=Christopher B|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.coviro.2019.06.009|pmc=6901737|issn=1879-6257}}</ref>
* '''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref>
* '''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref>
* '''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref>
* '''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[Helicobacter pylori]], Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref>
* '''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref>
* '''Hodgkin's lymphoma''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref>
* '''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
* '''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref>
* '''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref>
* '''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
* '''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
* '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref>
* '''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
* '''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref>
* '''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.
* '''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with mumps virus.<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref>
* '''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref>
* '''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref>
* '''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref>
* '''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref>
* '''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref>
* '''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]'''
|Myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is primarily associated with two [[enterovirus]]es, namely [[Coxsackie B virus]] and [[echovirus]] (for references see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]); with three [[herpesviruses]], namely [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[cytomegalovirus]] and [[human herpesvirus 6]] (for references see [[list of herpesvirus infection studies]]); and with [[SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref>
More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6:58|access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after Giardia enteritis: clinical characteristics, disability and long-term sickness absence|date=2012-02-08|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22316329/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=12|pages=13|last=Naess|first=Halvor|last2=Nyland|first2=Morten|last3=Hausken|first3=Trygve|last4=Follestad|first4=Inghild|last5=Nyland|first5=Harald I.|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-12-13|pmc=3292445|pmid=22316329|issn=1471-230X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome 5 years after giardiasis: differential diagnoses, characteristics and natural course|date=2013-02-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399438/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=13|pages=28|last=Mørch|first=Kristine|last2=Hanevik|first2=Kurt|last3=Rivenes|first3=Ann C.|last4=Bødtker|first4=Jørn E.|last5=Næss|first5=Halvor|last6=Stubhaug|first6=Bjarte|last7=Wensaas|first7=Knut-Arne|last8=Rortveit|first8=Guri|last9=Eide|first9=Geir E.|last10=Hausken|first10=Trygve|last11=Langeland|first11=Nina|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-13-28|pmc=3598369|pmid=23399438|issn=1471-230X}}</ref> [[Ross River virus]] <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Changing epidemiology of Ross River virus disease in South Australia|date=1996-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8862330/|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=165|issue=6|pages=313–317|last=Selden|first=S. M.|last2=Cameron|first2=A. S.|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124989.x|pmid=8862330|issn=0025-729X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study|date=2006-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16950834/|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=333|issue=7568|pages=575|last=Hickie|first=Ian|last2=Davenport|first2=Tracey|last3=Wakefield|first3=Denis|last4=Vollmer-Conna|first4=Ute|last5=Cameron|first5=Barbara|last6=Vernon|first6=Suzanne D.|last7=Reeves|first7=William C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Andrew|last9=Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group|doi=10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE|pmc=1569956|pmid=16950834|issn=1756-1833}}</ref> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evaluation of Prolonged Fatigue Post–West Nile Virus Infection and Association of Fatigue with Elevated Antiviral and Proinflammatory Cytokines|date=2014-09-01|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4150370/|journal=Viral Immunology|volume=27|issue=7|pages=327–333|last=Garcia|first=Melissa N.|last2=Hause|first2=Anne M.|last3=Walker|first3=Christopher M.|last4=Orange|first4=Jordan S.|last5=Hasbun|first5=Rodrigo|last6=Murray|first6=Kristy O.|doi=10.1089/vim.2014.0035|pmc=4150370|pmid=25062274|issn=0882-8245}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic myocarditis'''
|Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease'''
|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Crohn's disease]]'''
|Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus Candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]] and Serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref> Crohn's disease development has been linked to commensal yeast Candida albicans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An immunological link between Candida albicans colonization and Crohn's disease|date=2015-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23855357/|journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology|volume=41|issue=2|pages=135–139|last=Gerard|first=Romain|last2=Sendid|first2=Boualem|last3=Colombel|first3=Jean-Frederic|last4=Poulain|first4=Daniel|last5=Jouault|first5=Thierry|doi=10.3109/1040841X.2013.810587|pmid=23855357|issn=1549-7828}}</ref> One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref> Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref> In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when all three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
|-
|'''Coronary heart disease'''
|Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dementia'''
|Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444" />
|-
|'''[[Depression]]'''
|Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> Depression is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and psychiatric disorders: a cross-sectional study in China|date=2022 Sep 5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9445102/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=15092|last=Liu|first=Taixiu|last2=Gao|first2=Peng|last3=Bu|first3=Deyun|last4=Liu|first4=Dong|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-16420-y|pmc=9445102|pmid=36064811}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref>

* '''[[depression|Major depressive disorder]]''' is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> as well as [[Bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal | last = Schaller | first = James L. | last2 = Burkland | first2 = Glenn A. | last3 = Langhoff | first3 = P.J. | date = 2007-09-13 | title = Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3 | pages = 54|issn=1531-0132|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060}}</ref> and [[Borrelia]]<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
* '''Seasonal affective disorder''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]'''
|Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[Coxsackie B virus]] can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms.<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref>
Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref>

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family.
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]'''
|Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus.<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from a Staphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dilated cardiomyopathy'''
|Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref>
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|'''Epilepsy'''
|Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) infection of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref>
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|'''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]'''
|Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref>
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|'''[[Hypertension]]'''
|Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref>
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|'''Infertility'''
|Infertility is linked to an endometrium infection with [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus variant A (HHV-6A).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref>
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|'''[[Interstitial cystitis]]'''
|The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomaviruses, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> and treatment with the EBV antiviral valacyclovir results in clinical improvement in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary Viral Spectrum in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome and the Clinical Efficacy of Valacyclovir Treatment|date=2024-02-26|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38540138/|journal=Biomedicines|volume=12|issue=3|pages=522|last=Kuo|first=Hann-Chorng|last2=Peng|first2=Chih-Wen|last3=Jiang|first3=Yuan-Hong|last4=Jhang|first4=Jia-Fong|doi=10.3390/biomedicines12030522|pmc=10967905|pmid=38540138|issn=2227-9059}}</ref>
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|'''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]'''
|Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> IBS is linked to protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> IBS in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Lower back pain]]'''
|Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref>
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|'''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]'''
|Systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with the viruses Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|date=Sep 2006|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5|pages=462–467|last=James|first=Judith A.|last2=Harley|first2=John B.|last3=Scofield|first3=R. Hal|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|pmid=16896283|issn=1040-8711}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref> A study found that Epstein-Barr virus reprograms B-cells to cause autoimmune attacks.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus reprograms autoreactive B cells as antigen-presenting cells in systemic lupus erythematosus|date=2025-11-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41223250/|journal=Science Translational Medicine|volume=17|issue=824|last=Younis|first=Shady|last2=Moutusy|first2=Salvinaz I.|last3=Rasouli|first3=Sajede|last4=Jahanbani|first4=Shaghayegh|last5=Pandit|first5=Mahesh|last6=Wu|first6=Xiaohao|last7=Acharya|first7=Suman|last8=Sharpe|first8=Orr|last9=Wijeratne|first9=Tilini U.|last10=Harris|first10=Marlayna L.|last11=Yang|first11=Emily Y.|language=en|doi=10.1126/scitranslmed.ady0210|issn=1946-6234}}</ref>
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|'''Macular degeneration'''
|Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high cytomegalovirus antibody titers.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Metabolic syndrome]]'''
|Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and Helicobacter pylori. It is also linked to the viruses cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref>
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|'''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'''
|Multiple sclerosis is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus.<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> One study found EBV in the brain tissues of most ME patients.<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2|pages=e0192109|last=Hassani|first=Asma|last2=Corboy|first2=John R.|last3=Al-Salam|first3=Suhail|last4=Khan|first4=Gulfaraz|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> A landmark 2022 longitudinal study provided strong evidence that EBV is the leading cause of multiple sclerosis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Longitudinal analysis reveals high prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus associated with multiple sclerosis|date=2022-01-21|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35025605/|journal=Science|volume=375|issue=6578|pages=296–301|last=Bjornevik|first=Kjetil|last2=Cortese|first2=Marianna|last3=Healy|first3=Brian C.|last4=Kuhle|first4=Jens|last5=Mina|first5=Michael J.|last6=Leng|first6=Yumei|last7=Elledge|first7=Stephen J.|last8=Niebuhr|first8=David W.|last9=Scher|first9=Ann I.|last10=Munger|first10=Kassandra L.|last11=Ascherio|first11=Alberto|language=en|doi=10.1126/science.abj8222|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Multiple sclerosis is also linked to [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref>
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|'''Myocardial infarction'''
|Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of a sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref>
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|'''Myopia'''
|Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough) and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref>
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|'''[[Obesity]]'''
|Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Adenovirus 36 prevalence and association with human obesity: a systematic review|date=2021-03-22|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41366-021-00805-6|journal=International Journal of Obesity|volume=45|issue=6|pages=1342–1356|last=da Silva Fernandes|first=Jaime|last2=Schuelter-Trevisol|first2=Fabiana|last3=Cancelier|first3=Ana Carolina Lobor|last4=Gonçalves e Silva|first4=Helena Caetano|last5=de Sousa|first5=Daiana Gomes|last6=Atkinson|first6=Richard L.|last7=Trevisol|first7=Daisson José|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41366-021-00805-6|issn=0307-0565}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36, adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37 will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> It is known that adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref> Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref>
Obesity is associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium, [[Staphylococcus]], [[Streptococcus]], and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref>
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'''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]'''
|Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with Streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
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'''[[Panic disorder]]'''
|Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" />
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'''[[Parkinson's disease]]'''
|Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]],<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7|pages=302|last=Dourmashkin|first=Robert R.|last2=McCall|first2=Sherman A.|last3=Dourmashkin|first3=Neil|last4=Hannah|first4=Matthew J.|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977|issn=2046-1402}}</ref> Ljungan virus (from the picornavirus family),<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> and [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus.<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> Human pegivirus is found in the brains of 50% of Parkinson's patients, but is not found in the brains of controls.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Human pegivirus alters brain and blood immune and transcriptomic profiles of patients with Parkinson’s disease|date=2025-07-08|url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/189988|journal=JCI Insight|volume=10|issue=13|last=Hanson|first=Barbara A.|last2=Dang|first2=Xin|last3=Jamshidi|first3=Pouya|last4=Steffens|first4=Alicia|last5=Copenhaver|first5=Kaleigh|last6=Orban|first6=Zachary S.|last7=Bustos|first7=Bernabe|last8=Lubbe|first8=Stephen J.|last9=Castellani|first9=Rudolph J.|last10=Koralnik|first10=Igor J.|language=en|doi=10.1172/jci.insight.189988|issn=2379-3708}}</ref> Parkinson's is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref>
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'''Psoriasis'''
|Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref>
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'''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]'''
|Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and Proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[Borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref>
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'''[[Sarcoidosis]]'''
|Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref>
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'''Schizophrenia'''
|Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]].<ref name="pmid12857781" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name=":1" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> Borrelia,<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella henselae (the cause of cat scratch disease).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref>
One study found that a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found influenza virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk that the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref>

Individuals experiencing acute psychosis are nearly 11 times more likely to have a urinary tract infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary tract infections in acute psychosis|date=2014-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24499998/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=75|issue=4|pages=379–385|last=Graham|first=Krystle L.|last2=Carson|first2=Chelsea M.|last3=Ezeoke|first3=Amaka|last4=Buckley|first4=Peter F.|last5=Miller|first5=Brian J.|doi=10.4088/JCP.13m08469|pmid=24499998|issn=1555-2101}}</ref>
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'''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]'''
|Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the enterovirus [[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref>
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'''Stroke'''
|Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[Helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> Mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> Stroke is linked to [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus Histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref>
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'''Tourette syndrome'''
|Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[Streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref>
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|'''Valvular heart disease'''
|Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissues.
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'''Vasculitis'''
|Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.
|}

==How persistent microbes in the body may give rise to a disease==
Persistent microbes residing in the body can cause damage or dysfunction by numerous means:

* Microbes can infect and destroy host cells
* Microbes may secrete toxins, enzymes or metabolic by-products that damage host tissues or disrupt physiological processes
* Microbes may modify host gene expression
* Microbes may promote genetic mutations that lead to tumour development
* Microbes may induce a host immune response against them, causing collateral damage to the tissues
* Microbes may trigger autoimmunity leading to inflammatory damage to the body
* Microbial immune evasion tactics may lead to immune dysfunction (to aid their survival, all microbes living in the body engage in immune evasion, which involves the microbe synthesising immunomodulating proteins that thwart or disrupt immune system functioning)

==Difficulties in determining whether a pathogenic microbe might be causing a disease==
Determining whether a pathogenic microbe plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:
*The time between contracting the infectious microbe and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
*An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
*An infectious microbe may not cause its associated disease in every person.
*Only specific strains of a microbe may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).<ref name="Mechelli2015">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref>
*A given disease may be precipitated by more than one microbe.
*A microbe may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
*A microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
*Some microbes are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect microbes to a disease.
*For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
*A microbe may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the microbe.
In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large body of published studies demonstrating these associations.

==Notable studies==
*2000, [https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2000.0016 Infectious Causation of Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective] - Gregory Cochran, Paul W. Ewald ''et al''
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83689/ The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary] - Forum on Microbial Threats
*2004, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128097/ Virus-induced neurobehavioral disorders: mechanisms and implications] - Keizo Tomonaga
*2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011700/ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/eid/vol4no3/adobe/cassell.pdf Infectious Causes of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer] - Gail H. Cassell
*2006, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291059/ Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases] - Siobhán M O'Connor ''et al''
*2006, [[pmc:1479565/|The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers: it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human micro ecology and the nature of chronic disease]] - Caroline Hadley
*2008, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioral-psychiatric-au Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2010, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioural-psychiatric-a Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2011, [https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=jsbhs The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings] - Wendy Bjerke
*2012, [https://mpkb.org/home/pathogenesis/evidence_bacteria Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens] - Autoimmunity Research Foundation
*2012, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS407997/ Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases] - Steven S Coughlin
*2013, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23935899/ Causal Inference Regarding Infectious Aetiology of Chronic Conditions: A Systematic Review] - Sofia Orrskog ''et al''
*2023, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779437/ Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future] - Robert C Bransfield ''et al''
*2024, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349683/ Viral infections in etiology of mental disorders: a broad analysis of cytokine profile similarities – a narrative review] - Piotr Lorkiewicz ''et al''

==Articles and blogs==
*1999, [https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/0223102a.html Do Germs Cause Cancer?] - Forbes
*1999 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/a-new-germ-theory/377430/ A New Germ Theory] - The Atlantic Monthly Magazine
*1999, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199907/the-infection-connection The Infection Connection] - Psychology Today
*2005, [https://www.alzforum.org/webinars/pathogen-hypothesis-challenging-primacy-genetics-late-onset-alzheimer-disease?liveID=36 Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease] - Alzheimer Research Forum
*2008, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080522155752.htm The Emerging Role Of Infection In Alzheimer's Disease] - Science Daily
*2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230530004102/https://microbeminded.com/2017/11/11/interview-with-evolutionary-biologist-paul-ewald-infection-and-chronic-disease/ Interview With Evolutionary Biologist Paul Ewald] - Amy Proal
*2008, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infected-with-insanity/ Infected with Insanity: Could Microbes Cause Mental Illness?] - Scientific American
*2009, [https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-big-idea-that-might-beat-cancer-and-cut-health-care-costs-by-80-percent The Big Idea That Might Beat Cancer and Cut Health-Care Costs by 80 Percent] - Discover Magazine
*2010, [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/crohns-disease-triggers-may-include-viruses-other-factors Crohn’s Disease Triggers May Include Viruses and Other Factors] - National Institutes of Health
*2012, [https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-an-infection-suddenly-cause-ocd-201202274417 Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?] - Harvard Health Blog
*2012, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-perfectionists-handbook/201202/can-infections-result-in-mental-illness Can Infections Result in Mental Illness?] - Psychology Today
*2013, [https://www.medicaldaily.com/people-hospitalized-infections-are-62-more-likely-develop-mood-disorder-246876 People Hospitalized For Infections Are 62% More Likely To Develop A Mood Disorder] - Medical Daily
*2014, [https://www.livescience.com/43356-chronic-infections-cognitive-decline.html Chronic Infections Linked with Memory Problems Later in Life] - Live Science
*2015, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/05/150521095016.htm Infections can affect your IQ] - Science Daily
*2016, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q9zAG92V9M Toward a Unified, Evolutionary Theory of Cancer] - Paul Ewald: video on the infectious causes of cancer
*2019, [https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/psychiatric-disorders-are-infectious-agents-blame Psychiatric Disorders: Are Infectious Agents to Blame?] - Psychiatric Times
*2023, [https://www.mdedge.com/rheumatology/article/264214/long-covid/infection-related-chronic-illness-new-paradigm-research-and/page/0/1 Infection-related chronic illness: A new paradigm for research and treatment] - MDedge
*2023, [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/22/health/viral-infections-autoimmune-covid.html How Viral Infections Cause Long-Term Health Problems] - New York Tines

==Books==
*2002, [https://www.amazon.com/Plague-Time-Germ-Theory-Disease/dp/0385721846 Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease] - Paul W. Ewald
*2003, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714733_Microcompetition_with_Foreign_DNA_and_the_Origin_of_Chronic_Disease Microcompetition With Foreign DNA And the Origin of Chronic Disease] - Hanan Polansky
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561283/ Microbial Triggers of Chronic Human Illness] - American Society for Microbiology
*2006, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Potbelly-Syndrome-Obesity-Diabetes-Disease/dp/159120058X Potbelly Syndrome: How Common Germs Lead to Obesity, Diabetes and Heart Disease] - Russel Farris and Per Marin
*2008, [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5996250-stealth-germs-in-your-body Stealth Germs in Your Body] - Erno Daniel

==See also==
*[[Virus]]
*[[Pathogen]]s
*[[:Category:Triggers and risk factors|Triggers and risk factors (category)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Lists]]

Dr Markov's chronic bacterial intoxication syndrome (CBIS) theory of ME/CFS

2025-11-25T02:06:21Z

Hip:Minor text change

Dr Igor Markov believes that ME/CFS is caused by a chronic bacterial dysbiosis in the [[kidney]]s, a condition he has named '''nephrodysbacteriosis'''. Dr Markov states that he discovered this kidney dysbiosis constantly releases a range of bacterial toxins into the bloodstream, causing a body-wide toxic condition he has called the '''chronic bacterial intoxication syndrome''' (CBIS). He says this kidney dysbiosis leads to CBIS, which in turn causes ME/CFS.<ref name="CFSmask2021">{{Citation | url = https://www.longdom.org/proceedings/chronic-bacterial-intoxication-syndrome-under-the-mask-of-cfsme-59051.html|journal=Journal of Infectious Diseases & Preventive Medicine | last =Markov | first =Igor S. | last2 = Markov | first2 = Artem I. | title = Chronic Bacterial Intoxication Syndrome under the mask of CFS/ME (Reports 1–6 Clinical Diagnosis): 8th International Congress on Infectious Diseases. 8th Infection Congress |location = London, UK | issue = 9 |pages=32-116.|publisher=Longdom Publishing| date = 2021}}</ref><ref name="Markov2021" />
[[File:Kidney.jpeg|thumb|Dr Markov has stated that he has evidence ME/CFS is caused by a bacterial [[dysbiosis]] in the kidneys (possibly on the mucous membranes of the renal pelvis and calyces). '''Image:''' Left kidney, with contrast improved and cropping. {{Cite book|
last=Betts | first =JG | authorlink = | last2=Young | first2 = KA | authorlink2= | last3 = Wise | first3 = JA | last4 = Johnson | first4 = E | last5 = Poe | first5 = B | last6 = Kruse | first6 = DH | last7 = Korol | first7 = O | last8 = Johnson | first8 = JE | last9 = Womble | first9 = M | last10 = DeSaix | first10 = P | date = Jun 19, 2013|website=OpenStax|location=Houston, Texas|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=
|chapter=25.3 Gross Anatomy of the Kidney | title =Anatomy and Physiology | url =https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-introduction
|chapter-url=https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/25-3-gross-anatomy-of-the-kidney
|access-date=2023-02-13}}]]
Dr Markov states that nephrodysbacteriosis is an imbalance or overgrowth of bacteria in the kidney, which is not quite the same as a regular kidney infection (pyelonephritis) or a regular [[urinary tract infection]]. Nephrodysbacteriosis would be more analogous to intestinal dysbiosis. Dr Markov says nephrodysbacteriosis is a previously unknown medical condition that he himself discovered.

Dr Markov says this kidney dysbiosis is locally asymptomatic, and unlike a regular kidney infection, produces no local inflammatory response in the kidney. Dr Markov believes nephrodysbacteriosis causes ME/CFS, because when he treats the nephrodysbacteriosis in ME/CFS patients, he finds 93% of his patients are fully and permanently cured of their ME/CFS (although the treatment can take up to 3 years). He believes the nephrodysbacteriosis arises due to a dysfunction in mucosal immunity in ME/CFS patients.

==Treatment ==
To treat nephrodysbacteriosis, Dr Markov has pioneered the use of [[autovaccine therapy]]. Autovaccines are a medical technology which date back to 1900, in the pre-antibiotic era. These vaccines work by injecting the patient with their own killed bacteria, in order to stimulate an immune response to target those bacteria.

Using a '''high sensitivity urine test''', Dr Markov isolates and identifies the bacterial species causing nephrodysbacteriosis in the kidneys of ME/CFS patients. Using these live bacteria, he then creates an autovaccine. An autovaccine consists of the isolated bacteria which have been heat or chemically killed to render them safe for injection. Dr Markov then gives ME/CFS patients several courses of injections with this autovaccine therapy. He says this autovaccine therapy gradually fixes the nephrodysbacteriosis, which in turn permanently cures the ME/CFS.

Dr Markov discovered that antibiotics have no long-term efficacy for treating nephrodysbacteriosis (and finds antibiotics can actually make the kidney dysbiosis worse). But by using autovaccines to stimulate the immune system to mount a targeted attack on the specific bacteria causing the kidney dysbiosis, Dr Markov finds his autovaccine therapy fixes the dysbiosis, and this in turn cures ME/CFS.

Dr Igor Markov states that he has treated 4288 ME/CFS patients (children and adults) with his autovaccine therapy from the period 2009 to 2021, and reports that 93% of his patients with nephrodysbacteriosis achieved a full and permanent recovery from ME/CFS (although he says some patients may relapse after 5 to 7 years, but this can be fixed with additional autovaccine therapy).

Dr Igor Markov finds CBIS in more than 95% of ME/CFS patients who satisfy the CDC's 1994 [[Fukuda criteria]] for chronic fatigue syndrome. By contrast, in 70 adult healthy controls, Dr Markov found only 7% have nephrodysbacteriosis. Dr Markov speculates that the kidney bacterial dysbiosis of nephrodysbacteriosis might be located in the '''calyces''' and '''renal pelvis''', hollow areas of the kidney which are lined with mucous membranes, but wants other researchers to investigate in order to determine the precise location of the dysbiosis.

In some ME/CFS patients, Dr Markov finds that the culprit bacterial dysbiosis that is secreting bacterial toxins into the bloodstream is located in the nasopharynx, rather than (or in addition to) the kidneys. In these cases, Dr Markov takes a sample of the nasopharynx bacteria in order to make an autovaccine for the patient.

Note that endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) is not the only bacterial toxin involved with CBIS. Dr Markov states he often finds [[enterococcus]], [[staphylococcus]] and [[streptococcus]] in nephrodysbacteriosis, and these gram-positive bacteria do not produce endotoxin, but produce various exotoxins.

=== Bacterial species found in nephrodysbacteriosis ===
Dr Markov reports thats in nephrodysbacteriosis, the following bacteria are typically detected in the urine:
* Enterococcus + Escherichia coli in 93% of patients
* Enterococcus — 37%
* Escherichia coli — 25%
* Staphylococcus — 10%
* Klebsiella — 9%
* Streptococcus — 5%
* Proteus — 5%
* Enterobacter — 4%
* Morganella — 2%
* Acinetobacter — 1%
* Citrobacter — 0.7%
* Alcaligenes faecalis — 0.3%
* Hafnia — 0.2%
* Serratia — 0.2%
The percentages indicate the frequency that the bacterial species is found in CBIS patients.

Dr Markov says nephrodysbacteriosis can arise when Enterococcus or Enterobacter bacteria from the intestines translocate into the kidneys; or when Staphylococcus and Streptococcus from the nasopharynx translocate into the kidneys.

== Analysis of the bacterial toxins in the blood of CBIS patients ==
In Dr Igor Markov's as yet unpublished study "CBIS Report 8. Toxicological Diagnosis",<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://cbis.vitacell.com.ua/en | title = CBIS Report 8. Toxicological Diagnosis | last =Markov | first =Igor | authorlink = |website=Vitacell|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref> he reports the results of toxicological analysis of the blood of 818 patients with CBIS and nephrodysbacteriosis. His toxicological analysis found that CBIS patients have high levels of toxic proteins originating from bacteria in their blood.

The analysis of bacterial toxins in the blood was done by means of the Toxicon diagnostic system, a lab test developed by a group of Ukrainian scientists led by pediatric toxicologist Dr Borys S. Sheiman. The Toxicon lab test detects toxic proteomes of bacteria (toxicoproteomics).

According to the Toxicon test, Dr Markov found the majority of CBIS patients (81%) have severe toxemia, and 17% have moderate toxemia. Toxemia is blood poisoning from bacterial toxins.

Note that toxemia (bacterial toxins only in the blood) is not the same as septicemia (both bacteria and their toxins in the blood).

In terms of the bacterial species that these bacterial toxins originate from, the Toxicon test found that in 50% of CBIS patients, the toxins came from Enterococcus faecalis.

The frequency that other bacterial toxins were found in the blood in CBIS is shown below:

'''Bacterial Toxins Found in the Blood of CBIS Patients'''
* Enterococcus faecalis — in 50% of patients
* Escherichia coli — 12%
* Enterococcus faecalis + Escherichia coli (both together) — 27%
* Staphylococcus aureus or Staphylococcus haemolyticus — 6%
* Klebsiella pneumonia — 4%
* Pseudomonas aeruginosa — 1%
The Toxicon lab test found that the detoxification and elimination of toxic proteomes from the blood of CBIS patients was mainly carried out through macrophages of mesenchymal origin in 75% of patients, through the liver in 23% of patients, and via the kidneys in 2% of patients.

==Notable studies ==
* 2021, [https://www.longdom.org/proceedings/chronic-bacterial-intoxication-syndrome-under-the-mask-of-cfsme-59051.html Chronic bacterial intoxication syndrome under the mask of CFS/ME]: 8th International Congress on Infectious Diseases by Dr Igor Markov and Dr Artem Markov.
* [https://cbis.vitacell.com.ua/en Other CBIS papers from Dr Markov] (paywalled)
* 2021, Prolonged subfebrile condition, pyretic fever and febrile attacks of unknown genesis: new approach to diagnosis and treatment. Part 1. Clinical picture<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Затяжний субфебрилітет, фебрильні лихоманки та фебрильні атаки неясного генезу: новий підхід до діагностики та лікування. Частина 1. Клініка| date = 2021-12-22 | url = http://journals.uran.ua/index.php/2312-413X/article/view/246479|journal=ACTUAL INFECTOLOGY|volume=9|issue=4|pages=6–14 | last =Markov | first =I. S. | last2=Markov | first2 = A. I.|language=uk|doi=10.22141/2312-413X.9.4.2021.246479|issn=2312-4148}}</ref> — ([http://journals.uran.ua/index.php/2312-413X/article/view/246479 Abstract in English])
* 2021, Prolonged subfebrile condition, pyretic fever and febrile attacks of unknown genesis: new approach to diagnosis and treatment. Part 2. Diagnostics and treatment<ref name="Markov2021">{{Cite journal | title = Затяжний субфебрилітет, фебрильні лихоманки та фебрильні атаки неясного генезу: новий підхід до діагностики та лікування. Частина 2. Діагностика та лікування| date = 2021 | url = https://ai.zaslavsky.com.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/471|journal=Actual Infectology|volume=9|issue=5-6|pages=42–52 | last =Markov | first =I. S. | author-link = Igor Markov | last2=Markov | first2 = A. I.|author-link2 = Artem Markov |language=uk|doi=10.22141/2312-413X.9.5-6.2021.246696|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|trans-title=Prolonged subfebrile condition, pyretic fever and febrile attacks of unknown genesis: new approach to diagnosis and treatment. Part 2. Diagnostics and treatment|issn=2312-4148|quote=|via=}}</ref> — ( [https://ai.zaslavsky.com.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/471 Abstract in English])

==Evidence ==
Dr Markov's CBIS hypothesis and findings have not yet being subject to an independent peer review process.

== Learn more ==
* [https://forums.phoenixrising.me/threads/dr-igor-markov-says-me-cfs-is-caused-by-a-bacterial-dysbiosis-in-the-kidneys-and-says-autovaccine-therapy-cures-93-of-me-cfs-cases.84622/ Dr Igor Markov Says ME/CFS Is Caused by a Bacterial Dysbiosis in the Kidneys] - Phoenix Rising thread, 2021
* [https://forums.phoenixrising.me/threads/me-cfs-is-a-mystery-no-more-under-me-cfs-hides-chronic-bacterial-intoxication-syndrome-cbis-this-thread-only-for-posting-questions-to-dr-markov.84158/ Phoenix Rising Thread of Dr Oleg Markov] (Dr Igor Markov's brother) where Oleg posted a much of the info used in this article

* [https://cbis.vitacell.com.ua/en Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and CBIS] - Vitacell

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PvX8OcscQcQ Chronic fatigue syndrome] Video by Dr Igor Markov

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PvX8OcscQcQ Chronic bacterial intoxication syndrome] Video by Dr Igor Markov

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JGzOCjmQqM0 Chronic bacterial intoxication syndrome treatment] Video by Dr Igor Markov

* [https://patents.google.com/?inventor=Артём+Игоревич+МАРКОВ Dr Markov's vaccine patents].

* [https://vitacell.com.ua Vitacell Clinic and Markov Clinic] - two different clinics in Kyiv run by Dr Igor Markov and his son Dr Artem Markov

== See also ==
* [[Staphylococcus vaccine]]
* [[Dysbiosis]]
* [[Intestinal permeability]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Potential treatments]]
[[Category:Immunomodulators]]
[[Category:Medical hypotheses]]

List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

2025-11-16T01:52:18Z

Hip:Added 2025 study linking Lupus to EBV

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogenic microbes. By this we mean that certain microbes are found in the bodies of patients with the disease much more frequently than in the bodies of healthy people.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Preface|language=en | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/ | date = 2004|publisher=National Academies Press (US) | last = Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats | last2 = Knobler | first2 = Stacey L. | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Siobhán | last4 = Lemon | first4 = Stanley M. | last5 = Najafi | first5 = Marjan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = O'Connor | first = Siobhán M. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Christopher E. | last3 = Hughes | first3 = James M. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16836820/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1051–1057|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> When a microbe such as a [[virus]], [[bacteria|bacterium]], [[fungus]] or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether that microbe might be the cause of the disease, or might in part be causing the disease in conjunction with other causal factors. There are several possible explanations for why a microbe may be associated with a disease:
* The microbe is an "innocent bystander", playing no causal role in the disease, but for some reason, the microbe is more prevalent in the diseased organs in patients with the illness, perhaps because the immune response is compromised in these diseased organs.
* The microbe causes the disease in tandem with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposures).
* The microbe is a singular cause of the disease.
Generally the idea that persistent microbial infections living the tissues and cells of the body might be the underlying cause of many chronic diseases and cancers has not gained widespread acceptance in the medical science community; however, more and more studies are finding microbial links to chronic illnesses.

==Pathogenic microbes as a cause of chronic diseases and cancers==
Two prominent advocates of the theory that microbes are the cause of numerous chronic diseases and cancers are evolutionary biologist [[wikipedia:Paul_W._Ewald|Professor Paul W. Ewald]], and physicist and anthropologist [[wikipedia:Gregory_Cochran|Dr Gregory Cochran]]. They posit that many chronic diseases and cancers whose etiology is currently unknown will, in the future, likely turn out to be caused by damaging effects from chronic microbial infections living in the body's tissues and cells.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=|title=Plague time: the new germ theory of disease|publisher=Anchor Books|date=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|first=Paul W.|last=Ewald|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease}}</ref><ref name="InfectiousCausation">{{Cite journal|title=Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective|date=2000|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10893730/|journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine|volume=43|issue=3|pages=406–448|last=Cochran|first=G.M.|last2=Ewald|first2=P.W.|last3=Cochran|first3=K.D.|doi=10.1353/pbm.2000.0016|pmid=10893730|issn=0031-5982}}</ref> This viewpoint sharply contrasts with traditional notions of disease etiology, that defective genes, diet, and lifestyle factors underpin disease.

Professor Ewald supports his thesis that germs, not genes, are the primary cause of illnesses with an argument from evolutionary biology: he explains that any faulty genes that cause disease and thus reduce survival and procreation will be rapidly eliminated from the gene pool within a few generations by means of evolutionary natural selection.<ref name="PlagueTime">{{Cite book|title=Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|language=en|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|last=Ewald|first=Paul W.|pages=56}}</ref> Faulty genes are therefore self-extinguishing, and because evolution filters out defective genes so effectively, one would not expect many diseases to result from genetic faults.

Professor Ewald points out that the only faulty genes that are likely to persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, he says the genes that encode for sickle cell disease are maintained and persist down the generations because although these genes are bad, they also protect against malaria, which is a compensating advantage.

Scientists once believed that defective genes would largely explain how most chronic diseases and cancers arise. This belief in part motivated the multi-billion investment in the Human Genome Project, the enterprise to map out all human genes and the entire human genome. But once the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, it soon became apparent that genes do not play a major role in the development of most diseases and cancers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/apr/17/human-genome-genetics-twin-studies|title=The failure of the genome|last=Latham|first=Jonathan|date=2011-04-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> One large meta-analysis found that for the vast majority of chronic diseases, the genetic contribution to the risk of developing the disease is only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191219142739.htm|title=Your DNA is not your destiny -- or a good predictor of your health|date=December 19, 2019|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pafron2019">{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk|date=2019|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31805043/|journal=PloS One|volume=14|issue=12|pages=e0220215|last=Patron|first=Jonas|last2=Serra-Cayuela|first2=Arnau|last3=Han|first3=Beomsoo|last4=Li|first4=Carin|last5=Wishart|first5=David Scott|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220215|pmc=6894795|pmid=31805043|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

Thus the Human Genome Project failed to live up to its hype, and failed to uncover the underlying causes of chronic diseases and cancers. But thanks to this project, we now know genetic factors are not major players in the triggering of disease. So if defective genes cannot explain how chronic diseases and cancers arise, we have to examine other possible causal factors that may be driving disease. When we look at the list of possible causal factors that might underpin disease, that list is short, it consists of: environmental toxins, radiations, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet, and lifestyle factors. There are not many options in that list, which thus brings renewed focus on the idea that infectious agents may be the key players in the development of disease.

Other researchers with an interest in the idea that infectious microbes may be the hidden cause of many chronic diseases and cancers include: Dr Hanan Polansky,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Latent viruses can cause disease by disrupting the competition for the limiting factor p300/CBP|date=2018 Nov 26|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6260892/|journal=Cellular & Molecular Biology Letters|volume=23|pages=56|last=Polansky|first=Hanan|last2=Schwab|first2=Hava|language=en|doi=10.1186/s11658-018-0121-1|pmc=6260892|pmid=30505323}}</ref> Prof Siobhán M. O'Connor,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases - Volume 12, Number 7—July 2006 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/7/06-0037_article|last=O'Connor|first=Siobhán M.|last2=Taylor|first2=Christopher E.|last3=Hughes|first3=James M.|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> Prof Steven S. Coughlin,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases|date=2012 Dec 9|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175921/|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=34|pages=7|last=Coughlin|first=Steven S.|language=en|doi=10.1007/BF03391675|pmc=4175921|pmid=25264396}}</ref> Prof Timothy J. Henrich,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Overview of Infection- Associated Chronic Illnesses|date=2024-04-03|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK602972/|last=National Academies of Sciences|first=Engineering|last2=Division|first2=Health and Medicine|last3=Policy|first3=Board on Health Sciences|last4=Health|first4=Board on Global|last5=Disorders|first5=Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System|last6=Threats|first6=Forum on Microbial|last7=Snair|first7=Megan|last8=Liao|first8=Julie|last9=Ashby|first9=Elizabeth|last10=Biffl|first10=Claire|language=en|publisher=National Academies Press (US)}}</ref> and Prof Wendy Bjerke.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings|date=2011-01-01|url=https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/pthms_fac/2|journal=All PTHMS Faculty Publications|volume=5|issue=1|last=Bjerke|first=Wendy|doi=10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.05}}</ref>

Note, however, that more than one causal factor may be involved in the onset and development of a chronic disease or cancer: an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are simultaneously present. An example of this arises in a mouse model of Crohn's disease, an illness that can be precipitated by a norovirus infection of the intestinal tissues, but only when both a specific gene variant is present, and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine|date=2010-06-25|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997/|journal=Cell|volume=141|issue=7|pages=1135–1145|last=Cadwell|first=Ken|last2=Patel|first2=Khushbu K.|last3=Maloney|first3=Nicole S.|last4=Liu|first4=Ta-Chiang|last5=Ng|first5=Aylwin C.Y.|last6=Storer|first6=Chad E.|last7=Head|first7=Richard D.|last8=Xavier|first8=Ramnik|last9=Stappenbeck|first9=Thaddeus S.|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009|pmc=2908380|pmid=20602997|issn=1097-4172}}</ref> Thus although a microbe may be the primary factor in the onset of diease, its ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon other causal factors.

Microbe-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.<ref name="Kockaya2010">{{Cite journal|title=What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures|date=2010-10-26|url=http://www.scirp.org/Journal/Paperabs.aspx?paperid=2817|journal=Health|volume=2|issue=10|pages=1174–1178|last=Kockaya|first=Guvenc|last2=Wertheimer|first2=Albert|language=en|doi=10.4236/health.2010.210172}}</ref> About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/default/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf|title=Almanac of Chronic Disease|last=Carmona|first=Richard H.|authorlink=|date=2009|website=|publisher=Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|at=Forward|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens==
In the following list of diseases linked to infectious microbes, there is a good possibility that the microbes might be causing the disease, but further research is needed to work out whether these microbes do play a causal role.

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to microbes, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of microbe-associated illnesses.
{| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0"
| style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''Microbes Linked to the Disease'''
|-
| '''Alzheimer's disease'''
| Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>, [[Helicobacter pylori]]<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and Fusobacterium nucleatum.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Periodontal Pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum Exacerbates Alzheimer’s Pathogenesis via Specific Pathways|date=2022 Jun 23|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9260256/|journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience|volume=14|pages=912709|last=Wu|first=Hongle|last2=Qiu|first2=Wei|last3=Zhu|first3=Xiaofang|last4=Li|first4=Xiangfen|last5=Xie|first5=Zhongcong|last6=Carreras|first6=Isabel|last7=Dedeoglu|first7=Alpaslan|last8=Dyke|first8=Thomas Van|last9=Han|first9=Yiping W.|last10=Karimbux|first10=Nadeem|last11=Tu|first11=Qisheng|language=en|doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.912709|pmc=9260256|pmid=35813949}}</ref> Alzheimer's is associated with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref>
Alzheimer's is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1 in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref> Alzheimer's has been linked to [[cytomegalovirus]] infection of the brain, which may enter the brain by travelling along the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alzheimer's disease-associated CD83(+) microglia are linked with increased immunoglobulin G4 and human cytomegalovirus in the gut, vagal nerve, and brain|date=2024-12-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39698934/|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association|last=Readhead|first=Benjamin P.|last2=Mastroeni|first2=Diego F.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi|last4=Sierra|first4=Maria A.|last5=de Ávila|first5=Camila|last6=Jimoh|first6=Tajudeen O.|last7=Haure-Mirande|first7=Jean-Vianney|last8=Atanasoff|first8=Kristina E.|last9=Nolz|first9=Jennifer|last10=Suazo|first10=Crystal|last11=Barton|first11=Nathaniel J.|doi=10.1002/alz.14401|pmid=39698934|issn=1552-5279}}</ref> The viruses [[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal|title=Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|date=Dec 2015|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|last=Pisa|first=Diana|authorlink=|last2=Alonso|first2=Ruth|authorlink2=|last3=Rábano|first3=Alberto|authorlink3=|last4=Rodal|first4=Izaskun|authorlink4=|last5=Carrasco|first5=Luis|authorlink5=|language=en|doi=10.1038/srep15015|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|issn=2045-2322|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]'''
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with retrovirus<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
|-
| '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]'''
| Infection with borrelia species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa.<ref name="pmid7943444" /> In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[Streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. Adolescent girls who had hospital-treated infections, or had less severe infections treated with anti-infective agents, were found to be at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Exposure to Infections in Childhood With Risk of Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls|date=2019 Apr 24|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6487907/|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=76|issue=8|pages=800|last=Breithaupt|first=Lauren|last2=Köhler-Forsberg|first2=Ole|last3=Larsen|first3=Janne Tidselbak|last4=Benros|first4=Michael E.|last5=Thornton|first5=Laura Marie|last6=Bulik|first6=Cynthia M.|last7=Petersen|first7=Liselotte|language=en|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0297|pmc=6487907|pmid=31017632}}</ref> [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" />
|-
| '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]'''
| Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Helicobacter pylori Infection with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|date=10 July 2024|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/9247586|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|last=Li|first=L|last2=Ren|first2=Y|doi=10.1155/2024/9247586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Helicobacter pylori infection association with anxiety in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms in Hadhramout|url=https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/helicobacter-pylori-infection-association-with-anxiety-in-patients-with-upper-gastrointestinal-symptoms-in-hadhramout-27168.html|journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Digestive Diseases|volume=8|issue=5|pages=daakeek|last=Ahmed M.|last2=Musiaan|first2=Nabeel S.|last3=Al-Zaazaai|first3=Ahmed}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Infection with Toxoplasma gondii increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study|date=2020 Jul 30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10317747/|journal=Parasitology|volume=147|issue=13|pages=1577|last=Lin|first=Hsin-An|last2=Chien|first2=Wu-Chien|last3=Huang|first3=Kuo-Yang|last4=Chung|first4=Chi-Hsiang|last5=Chen|first5=Lih-Chyang|last6=Lin|first6=Hsin-Chung|last7=Guo|first7=Jong-Long|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0031182020001183|pmc=10317747|pmid=32729456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Population-based cohort study of Toxoplasma gondii P22 antibody positivity correlation with anxiety|date=2024-08-15|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38729222/|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=359|pages=41–48|last=Yang|first=Lili|last2=Wang|first2=Biyun|last3=Wu|first3=Shuizhen|last4=Yang|first4=Zihan|last5=Xin|first5=Zixuan|last6=Zheng|first6=Shuyu|last7=Zou|first7=Weihao|last8=Zhang|first8=Chi|last9=Chen|first9=Jiating|last10=Peng|first10=Hongjuan|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.043|pmid=38729222|issn=1573-2517}}</ref> and associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Asthma]]'''
| Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref>
|-
| '''Atherosclerosis'''
| Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> Atherosclerosis is linked to the bacteria Helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref>
|-
| '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder'''
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[Streptococcus]], and with the viruses HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].
Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref>
|-
| '''Autism'''
| Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s'''
| Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases are linked to the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref>
|-
| '''Bipolar disorder'''
| Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Cancer]]'''
|Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to microbial causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the microbes currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some microbes proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to microbes that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

* '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref>
* '''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref>
* '''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by Schistosoma helminths.<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref>
* '''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref>
* '''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref>
* '''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref>
* '''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[Helicobacter pylori]], Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref>
* '''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref>
* '''Hodgkin's lymphoma''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref>
* '''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
* '''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref>
* '''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref>
* '''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
* '''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
* '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref>
* '''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
* '''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref>
* '''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.
* '''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with mumps virus.<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref>
* '''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref>
* '''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref>
* '''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref>
* '''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref>
* '''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref>
* '''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]'''
|Myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is primarily associated with two [[enterovirus]]es, namely [[Coxsackie B virus]] and [[echovirus]] (for references see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]); with three [[herpesviruses]], namely [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[cytomegalovirus]] and [[human herpesvirus 6]] (for references see [[list of herpesvirus infection studies]]); and with [[SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref>
More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6:58|access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after Giardia enteritis: clinical characteristics, disability and long-term sickness absence|date=2012-02-08|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22316329/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=12|pages=13|last=Naess|first=Halvor|last2=Nyland|first2=Morten|last3=Hausken|first3=Trygve|last4=Follestad|first4=Inghild|last5=Nyland|first5=Harald I.|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-12-13|pmc=3292445|pmid=22316329|issn=1471-230X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome 5 years after giardiasis: differential diagnoses, characteristics and natural course|date=2013-02-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399438/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=13|pages=28|last=Mørch|first=Kristine|last2=Hanevik|first2=Kurt|last3=Rivenes|first3=Ann C.|last4=Bødtker|first4=Jørn E.|last5=Næss|first5=Halvor|last6=Stubhaug|first6=Bjarte|last7=Wensaas|first7=Knut-Arne|last8=Rortveit|first8=Guri|last9=Eide|first9=Geir E.|last10=Hausken|first10=Trygve|last11=Langeland|first11=Nina|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-13-28|pmc=3598369|pmid=23399438|issn=1471-230X}}</ref> [[Ross River virus]] <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Changing epidemiology of Ross River virus disease in South Australia|date=1996-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8862330/|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=165|issue=6|pages=313–317|last=Selden|first=S. M.|last2=Cameron|first2=A. S.|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124989.x|pmid=8862330|issn=0025-729X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study|date=2006-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16950834/|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=333|issue=7568|pages=575|last=Hickie|first=Ian|last2=Davenport|first2=Tracey|last3=Wakefield|first3=Denis|last4=Vollmer-Conna|first4=Ute|last5=Cameron|first5=Barbara|last6=Vernon|first6=Suzanne D.|last7=Reeves|first7=William C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Andrew|last9=Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group|doi=10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE|pmc=1569956|pmid=16950834|issn=1756-1833}}</ref> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evaluation of Prolonged Fatigue Post–West Nile Virus Infection and Association of Fatigue with Elevated Antiviral and Proinflammatory Cytokines|date=2014-09-01|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4150370/|journal=Viral Immunology|volume=27|issue=7|pages=327–333|last=Garcia|first=Melissa N.|last2=Hause|first2=Anne M.|last3=Walker|first3=Christopher M.|last4=Orange|first4=Jordan S.|last5=Hasbun|first5=Rodrigo|last6=Murray|first6=Kristy O.|doi=10.1089/vim.2014.0035|pmc=4150370|pmid=25062274|issn=0882-8245}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic myocarditis'''
|Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease'''
|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Crohn's disease]]'''
|Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus Candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]] and Serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref> Crohn's disease development has been linked to commensal yeast Candida albicans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An immunological link between Candida albicans colonization and Crohn's disease|date=2015-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23855357/|journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology|volume=41|issue=2|pages=135–139|last=Gerard|first=Romain|last2=Sendid|first2=Boualem|last3=Colombel|first3=Jean-Frederic|last4=Poulain|first4=Daniel|last5=Jouault|first5=Thierry|doi=10.3109/1040841X.2013.810587|pmid=23855357|issn=1549-7828}}</ref> One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref> Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref> In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when all three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
|-
|'''Coronary heart disease'''
|Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dementia'''
|Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444" />
|-
|'''[[Depression]]'''
|Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> Depression is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and psychiatric disorders: a cross-sectional study in China|date=2022 Sep 5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9445102/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=15092|last=Liu|first=Taixiu|last2=Gao|first2=Peng|last3=Bu|first3=Deyun|last4=Liu|first4=Dong|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-16420-y|pmc=9445102|pmid=36064811}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref>

* '''[[depression|Major depressive disorder]]''' is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> as well as [[Bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal | last = Schaller | first = James L. | last2 = Burkland | first2 = Glenn A. | last3 = Langhoff | first3 = P.J. | date = 2007-09-13 | title = Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3 | pages = 54|issn=1531-0132|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060}}</ref> and [[Borrelia]]<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
* '''Seasonal affective disorder''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]'''
|Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[Coxsackie B virus]] can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms.<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref>
Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref>

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family.
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]'''
|Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus.<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from a Staphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dilated cardiomyopathy'''
|Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref>
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|'''Epilepsy'''
|Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) infection of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref>
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|'''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]'''
|Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref>
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|'''[[Hypertension]]'''
|Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref>
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|'''Infertility'''
|Infertility is linked to an endometrium infection with [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus variant A (HHV-6A).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref>
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|'''[[Interstitial cystitis]]'''
|The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomaviruses, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> and treatment with the EBV antiviral valacyclovir results in clinical improvement in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary Viral Spectrum in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome and the Clinical Efficacy of Valacyclovir Treatment|date=2024-02-26|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38540138/|journal=Biomedicines|volume=12|issue=3|pages=522|last=Kuo|first=Hann-Chorng|last2=Peng|first2=Chih-Wen|last3=Jiang|first3=Yuan-Hong|last4=Jhang|first4=Jia-Fong|doi=10.3390/biomedicines12030522|pmc=10967905|pmid=38540138|issn=2227-9059}}</ref>
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|'''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]'''
|Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> IBS is linked to protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> IBS in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Lower back pain]]'''
|Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref>
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|'''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]'''
|Systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with the viruses Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|date=Sep 2006|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5|pages=462–467|last=James|first=Judith A.|last2=Harley|first2=John B.|last3=Scofield|first3=R. Hal|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|pmid=16896283|issn=1040-8711}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref> A study found that Epstein-Barr virus reprograms B-cells to cause autoimmune attacks.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus reprograms autoreactive B cells as antigen-presenting cells in systemic lupus erythematosus|date=2025-11-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41223250/|journal=Science Translational Medicine|volume=17|issue=824|last=Younis|first=Shady|last2=Moutusy|first2=Salvinaz I.|last3=Rasouli|first3=Sajede|last4=Jahanbani|first4=Shaghayegh|last5=Pandit|first5=Mahesh|last6=Wu|first6=Xiaohao|last7=Acharya|first7=Suman|last8=Sharpe|first8=Orr|last9=Wijeratne|first9=Tilini U.|last10=Harris|first10=Marlayna L.|last11=Yang|first11=Emily Y.|language=en|doi=10.1126/scitranslmed.ady0210|issn=1946-6234}}</ref>
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|'''Macular degeneration'''
|Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high cytomegalovirus antibody titers.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Metabolic syndrome]]'''
|Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and Helicobacter pylori. It is also linked to the viruses cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref>
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|'''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'''
|Multiple sclerosis is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus.<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> One study found EBV in the brain tissues of most ME patients.<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2|pages=e0192109|last=Hassani|first=Asma|last2=Corboy|first2=John R.|last3=Al-Salam|first3=Suhail|last4=Khan|first4=Gulfaraz|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> A landmark 2022 longitudinal study provided strong evidence that EBV is the leading cause of multiple sclerosis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Longitudinal analysis reveals high prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus associated with multiple sclerosis|date=2022-01-21|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35025605/|journal=Science|volume=375|issue=6578|pages=296–301|last=Bjornevik|first=Kjetil|last2=Cortese|first2=Marianna|last3=Healy|first3=Brian C.|last4=Kuhle|first4=Jens|last5=Mina|first5=Michael J.|last6=Leng|first6=Yumei|last7=Elledge|first7=Stephen J.|last8=Niebuhr|first8=David W.|last9=Scher|first9=Ann I.|last10=Munger|first10=Kassandra L.|last11=Ascherio|first11=Alberto|language=en|doi=10.1126/science.abj8222|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Multiple sclerosis is also linked to [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref>
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|'''Myocardial infarction'''
|Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of a sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref>
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|'''Myopia'''
|Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough) and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref>
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|'''[[Obesity]]'''
|Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Adenovirus 36 prevalence and association with human obesity: a systematic review|date=2021-03-22|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41366-021-00805-6|journal=International Journal of Obesity|volume=45|issue=6|pages=1342–1356|last=da Silva Fernandes|first=Jaime|last2=Schuelter-Trevisol|first2=Fabiana|last3=Cancelier|first3=Ana Carolina Lobor|last4=Gonçalves e Silva|first4=Helena Caetano|last5=de Sousa|first5=Daiana Gomes|last6=Atkinson|first6=Richard L.|last7=Trevisol|first7=Daisson José|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41366-021-00805-6|issn=0307-0565}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36, adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37 will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> It is known that adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref> Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref>
Obesity is associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium, [[Staphylococcus]], [[Streptococcus]], and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref>
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'''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]'''
|Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with Streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
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'''[[Panic disorder]]'''
|Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" />
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'''[[Parkinson's disease]]'''
|Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]],<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7|pages=302|last=Dourmashkin|first=Robert R.|last2=McCall|first2=Sherman A.|last3=Dourmashkin|first3=Neil|last4=Hannah|first4=Matthew J.|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977|issn=2046-1402}}</ref> Ljungan virus (from the picornavirus family),<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> and [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus.<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> Human pegivirus is found in the brains of 50% of Parkinson's patients, but is not found in the brains of controls.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Human pegivirus alters brain and blood immune and transcriptomic profiles of patients with Parkinson’s disease|date=2025-07-08|url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/189988|journal=JCI Insight|volume=10|issue=13|last=Hanson|first=Barbara A.|last2=Dang|first2=Xin|last3=Jamshidi|first3=Pouya|last4=Steffens|first4=Alicia|last5=Copenhaver|first5=Kaleigh|last6=Orban|first6=Zachary S.|last7=Bustos|first7=Bernabe|last8=Lubbe|first8=Stephen J.|last9=Castellani|first9=Rudolph J.|last10=Koralnik|first10=Igor J.|language=en|doi=10.1172/jci.insight.189988|issn=2379-3708}}</ref> Parkinson's is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref>
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'''Psoriasis'''
|Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref>
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'''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]'''
|Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and Proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[Borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref>
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'''[[Sarcoidosis]]'''
|Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref>
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'''Schizophrenia'''
|Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]].<ref name="pmid12857781" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name=":1" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> Borrelia,<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella henselae (the cause of cat scratch disease).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref>
One study found that a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found influenza virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk that the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref>

Individuals experiencing acute psychosis are nearly 11 times more likely to have a urinary tract infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary tract infections in acute psychosis|date=2014-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24499998/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=75|issue=4|pages=379–385|last=Graham|first=Krystle L.|last2=Carson|first2=Chelsea M.|last3=Ezeoke|first3=Amaka|last4=Buckley|first4=Peter F.|last5=Miller|first5=Brian J.|doi=10.4088/JCP.13m08469|pmid=24499998|issn=1555-2101}}</ref>
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'''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]'''
|Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the enterovirus [[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref>
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'''Stroke'''
|Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[Helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> Mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> Stroke is linked to [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus Histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref>
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'''Tourette syndrome'''
|Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[Streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref>
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|'''Valvular heart disease'''
|Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissues.
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'''Vasculitis'''
|Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.
|}

==How persistent microbes in the body may give rise to a disease==
Persistent microbes residing in the body can cause damage or dysfunction by numerous means:

* Microbes can infect and destroy host cells
* Microbes may secrete toxins, enzymes or metabolic by-products that damage host tissues or disrupt physiological processes
* Microbes may modify host gene expression
* Microbes may promote genetic mutations that lead to tumour development
* Microbes may induce a host immune response against them, causing collateral damage to the tissues
* Microbes may trigger autoimmunity leading to inflammatory damage to the body
* Microbial immune evasion tactics may lead to immune dysfunction (to aid their survival, all microbes living in the body engage in immune evasion, which involves the microbe synthesising immunomodulating proteins that thwart or disrupt immune system functioning)

==Difficulties in determining whether a pathogenic microbe might be causing a disease==
Determining whether a pathogenic microbe plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:
*The time between contracting the infectious microbe and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
*An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
*An infectious microbe may not cause its associated disease in every person.
*Only specific strains of a microbe may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).<ref name="Mechelli2015">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref>
*A given disease may be precipitated by more than one microbe.
*A microbe may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
*A microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
*Some microbes are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect microbes to a disease.
*For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
*A microbe may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the microbe.
In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large body of published studies demonstrating these associations.

==Notable studies==
*2000, [https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2000.0016 Infectious Causation of Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective] - Gregory Cochran, Paul W. Ewald ''et al''
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83689/ The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary] - Forum on Microbial Threats
*2004, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128097/ Virus-induced neurobehavioral disorders: mechanisms and implications] - Keizo Tomonaga
*2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011700/ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/eid/vol4no3/adobe/cassell.pdf Infectious Causes of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer] - Gail H. Cassell
*2006, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291059/ Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases] - Siobhán M O'Connor ''et al''
*2006, [[pmc:1479565/|The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers: it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human micro ecology and the nature of chronic disease]] - Caroline Hadley
*2008, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioral-psychiatric-au Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2010, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioural-psychiatric-a Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2011, [https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=jsbhs The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings] - Wendy Bjerke
*2012, [https://mpkb.org/home/pathogenesis/evidence_bacteria Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens] - Autoimmunity Research Foundation
*2012, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS407997/ Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases] - Steven S Coughlin
*2013, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23935899/ Causal Inference Regarding Infectious Aetiology of Chronic Conditions: A Systematic Review] - Sofia Orrskog ''et al''
*2023, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779437/ Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future] - Robert C Bransfield ''et al''
*2024, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349683/ Viral infections in etiology of mental disorders: a broad analysis of cytokine profile similarities – a narrative review] - Piotr Lorkiewicz ''et al''

==Articles and blogs==
*1999, [https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/0223102a.html Do Germs Cause Cancer?] - Forbes
*1999 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/a-new-germ-theory/377430/ A New Germ Theory] - The Atlantic Monthly Magazine
*1999, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199907/the-infection-connection The Infection Connection] - Psychology Today
*2005, [https://www.alzforum.org/webinars/pathogen-hypothesis-challenging-primacy-genetics-late-onset-alzheimer-disease?liveID=36 Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease] - Alzheimer Research Forum
*2008, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080522155752.htm The Emerging Role Of Infection In Alzheimer's Disease] - Science Daily
*2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230530004102/https://microbeminded.com/2017/11/11/interview-with-evolutionary-biologist-paul-ewald-infection-and-chronic-disease/ Interview With Evolutionary Biologist Paul Ewald] - Amy Proal
*2008, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infected-with-insanity/ Infected with Insanity: Could Microbes Cause Mental Illness?] - Scientific American
*2009, [https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-big-idea-that-might-beat-cancer-and-cut-health-care-costs-by-80-percent The Big Idea That Might Beat Cancer and Cut Health-Care Costs by 80 Percent] - Discover Magazine
*2010, [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/crohns-disease-triggers-may-include-viruses-other-factors Crohn’s Disease Triggers May Include Viruses and Other Factors] - National Institutes of Health
*2012, [https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-an-infection-suddenly-cause-ocd-201202274417 Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?] - Harvard Health Blog
*2012, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-perfectionists-handbook/201202/can-infections-result-in-mental-illness Can Infections Result in Mental Illness?] - Psychology Today
*2013, [https://www.medicaldaily.com/people-hospitalized-infections-are-62-more-likely-develop-mood-disorder-246876 People Hospitalized For Infections Are 62% More Likely To Develop A Mood Disorder] - Medical Daily
*2014, [https://www.livescience.com/43356-chronic-infections-cognitive-decline.html Chronic Infections Linked with Memory Problems Later in Life] - Live Science
*2015, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/05/150521095016.htm Infections can affect your IQ] - Science Daily
*2016, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q9zAG92V9M Toward a Unified, Evolutionary Theory of Cancer] - Paul Ewald: video on the infectious causes of cancer
*2019, [https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/psychiatric-disorders-are-infectious-agents-blame Psychiatric Disorders: Are Infectious Agents to Blame?] - Psychiatric Times
*2023, [https://www.mdedge.com/rheumatology/article/264214/long-covid/infection-related-chronic-illness-new-paradigm-research-and/page/0/1 Infection-related chronic illness: A new paradigm for research and treatment] - MDedge
*2023, [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/22/health/viral-infections-autoimmune-covid.html How Viral Infections Cause Long-Term Health Problems] - New York Tines

==Books==
*2002, [https://www.amazon.com/Plague-Time-Germ-Theory-Disease/dp/0385721846 Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease] - Paul W. Ewald
*2003, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714733_Microcompetition_with_Foreign_DNA_and_the_Origin_of_Chronic_Disease Microcompetition With Foreign DNA And the Origin of Chronic Disease] - Hanan Polansky
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561283/ Microbial Triggers of Chronic Human Illness] - American Society for Microbiology
*2006, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Potbelly-Syndrome-Obesity-Diabetes-Disease/dp/159120058X Potbelly Syndrome: How Common Germs Lead to Obesity, Diabetes and Heart Disease] - Russel Farris and Per Marin
*2008, [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5996250-stealth-germs-in-your-body Stealth Germs in Your Body] - Erno Daniel

==See also==
*[[Virus]]
*[[Pathogen]]s
*[[:Category:Triggers and risk factors|Triggers and risk factors (category)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Lists]]

List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

2025-07-12T23:43:54Z

Hip:Added human pegivirus link to Parkinson's

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogenic microbes. By this we mean that certain microbes are found in the bodies of patients with the disease much more frequently than in the bodies of healthy people.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Preface|language=en | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/ | date = 2004|publisher=National Academies Press (US) | last = Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats | last2 = Knobler | first2 = Stacey L. | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Siobhán | last4 = Lemon | first4 = Stanley M. | last5 = Najafi | first5 = Marjan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = O'Connor | first = Siobhán M. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Christopher E. | last3 = Hughes | first3 = James M. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16836820/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1051–1057|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> When a microbe such as a [[virus]], [[bacteria|bacterium]], [[fungus]] or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether that microbe might be the cause of the disease, or might in part be causing the disease in conjunction with other causal factors. There are several possible explanations for why a microbe may be associated with a disease:
* The microbe is an "innocent bystander", playing no causal role in the disease, but for some reason, the microbe is more prevalent in the diseased organs in patients with the illness, perhaps because the immune response is compromised in these diseased organs.
* The microbe causes the disease in tandem with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposures).
* The microbe is a singular cause of the disease.
Generally the idea that persistent microbial infections living the tissues and cells of the body might be the underlying cause of many chronic diseases and cancers has not gained widespread acceptance in the medical science community; however, more and more studies are finding microbial links to chronic illnesses.

==Pathogenic microbes as a cause of chronic diseases and cancers==
Two prominent advocates of the theory that microbes are the cause of numerous chronic diseases and cancers are evolutionary biologist [[wikipedia:Paul_W._Ewald|Professor Paul W. Ewald]], and physicist and anthropologist [[wikipedia:Gregory_Cochran|Dr Gregory Cochran]]. They posit that many chronic diseases and cancers whose etiology is currently unknown will, in the future, likely turn out to be caused by damaging effects from chronic microbial infections living in the body's tissues and cells.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=|title=Plague time: the new germ theory of disease|publisher=Anchor Books|date=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|first=Paul W.|last=Ewald|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease}}</ref><ref name="InfectiousCausation">{{Cite journal|title=Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective|date=2000|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10893730/|journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine|volume=43|issue=3|pages=406–448|last=Cochran|first=G.M.|last2=Ewald|first2=P.W.|last3=Cochran|first3=K.D.|doi=10.1353/pbm.2000.0016|pmid=10893730|issn=0031-5982}}</ref> This viewpoint sharply contrasts with traditional notions of disease etiology, that defective genes, diet, and lifestyle factors underpin disease.

Professor Ewald supports his thesis that germs, not genes, are the primary cause of illnesses with an argument from evolutionary biology: he explains that any faulty genes that cause disease and thus reduce survival and procreation will be rapidly eliminated from the gene pool within a few generations by means of evolutionary natural selection.<ref name="PlagueTime">{{Cite book|title=Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|language=en|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|last=Ewald|first=Paul W.|pages=56}}</ref> Faulty genes are therefore self-extinguishing, and because evolution filters out defective genes so effectively, one would not expect many diseases to result from genetic faults.

Professor Ewald points out that the only faulty genes that are likely to persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, he says the genes that encode for sickle cell disease are maintained and persist down the generations because although these genes are bad, they also protect against malaria, which is a compensating advantage.

Scientists once believed that defective genes would largely explain how most chronic diseases and cancers arise. This belief in part motivated the multi-billion investment in the Human Genome Project, the enterprise to map out all human genes and the entire human genome. But once the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, it soon became apparent that genes do not play a major role in the development of most diseases and cancers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/apr/17/human-genome-genetics-twin-studies|title=The failure of the genome|last=Latham|first=Jonathan|date=2011-04-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> One large meta-analysis found that for the vast majority of chronic diseases, the genetic contribution to the risk of developing the disease is only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191219142739.htm|title=Your DNA is not your destiny -- or a good predictor of your health|date=December 19, 2019|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pafron2019">{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk|date=2019|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31805043/|journal=PloS One|volume=14|issue=12|pages=e0220215|last=Patron|first=Jonas|last2=Serra-Cayuela|first2=Arnau|last3=Han|first3=Beomsoo|last4=Li|first4=Carin|last5=Wishart|first5=David Scott|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220215|pmc=6894795|pmid=31805043|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

Thus the Human Genome Project failed to live up to its hype, and failed to uncover the underlying causes of chronic diseases and cancers. But thanks to this project, we now know genetic factors are not major players in the triggering of disease. So if defective genes cannot explain how chronic diseases and cancers arise, we have to examine other possible causal factors that may be driving disease. When we look at the list of possible causal factors that might underpin disease, that list is short, it consists of: environmental toxins, radiations, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet, and lifestyle factors. There are not many options in that list, which thus brings renewed focus on the idea that infectious agents may be the key players in the development of disease.

Other researchers with an interest in the idea that infectious microbes may be the hidden cause of many chronic diseases and cancers include: Dr Hanan Polansky,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Latent viruses can cause disease by disrupting the competition for the limiting factor p300/CBP|date=2018 Nov 26|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6260892/|journal=Cellular & Molecular Biology Letters|volume=23|pages=56|last=Polansky|first=Hanan|last2=Schwab|first2=Hava|language=en|doi=10.1186/s11658-018-0121-1|pmc=6260892|pmid=30505323}}</ref> Prof Siobhán M. O'Connor,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases - Volume 12, Number 7—July 2006 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/7/06-0037_article|last=O'Connor|first=Siobhán M.|last2=Taylor|first2=Christopher E.|last3=Hughes|first3=James M.|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> Prof Steven S. Coughlin,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases|date=2012 Dec 9|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175921/|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=34|pages=7|last=Coughlin|first=Steven S.|language=en|doi=10.1007/BF03391675|pmc=4175921|pmid=25264396}}</ref> Prof Timothy J. Henrich,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Overview of Infection- Associated Chronic Illnesses|date=2024-04-03|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK602972/|last=National Academies of Sciences|first=Engineering|last2=Division|first2=Health and Medicine|last3=Policy|first3=Board on Health Sciences|last4=Health|first4=Board on Global|last5=Disorders|first5=Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System|last6=Threats|first6=Forum on Microbial|last7=Snair|first7=Megan|last8=Liao|first8=Julie|last9=Ashby|first9=Elizabeth|last10=Biffl|first10=Claire|language=en|publisher=National Academies Press (US)}}</ref> and Prof Wendy Bjerke.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings|date=2011-01-01|url=https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/pthms_fac/2|journal=All PTHMS Faculty Publications|volume=5|issue=1|last=Bjerke|first=Wendy|doi=10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.05}}</ref>

Note, however, that more than one causal factor may be involved in the onset and development of a chronic disease or cancer: an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are simultaneously present. An example of this arises in a mouse model of Crohn's disease, an illness that can be precipitated by a norovirus infection of the intestinal tissues, but only when both a specific gene variant is present, and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine|date=2010-06-25|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997/|journal=Cell|volume=141|issue=7|pages=1135–1145|last=Cadwell|first=Ken|last2=Patel|first2=Khushbu K.|last3=Maloney|first3=Nicole S.|last4=Liu|first4=Ta-Chiang|last5=Ng|first5=Aylwin C.Y.|last6=Storer|first6=Chad E.|last7=Head|first7=Richard D.|last8=Xavier|first8=Ramnik|last9=Stappenbeck|first9=Thaddeus S.|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009|pmc=2908380|pmid=20602997|issn=1097-4172}}</ref> Thus although a microbe may be the primary factor in the onset of diease, its ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon other causal factors.

Microbe-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.<ref name="Kockaya2010">{{Cite journal|title=What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures|date=2010-10-26|url=http://www.scirp.org/Journal/Paperabs.aspx?paperid=2817|journal=Health|volume=2|issue=10|pages=1174–1178|last=Kockaya|first=Guvenc|last2=Wertheimer|first2=Albert|language=en|doi=10.4236/health.2010.210172}}</ref> About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/default/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf|title=Almanac of Chronic Disease|last=Carmona|first=Richard H.|authorlink=|date=2009|website=|publisher=Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|at=Forward|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens==
In the following list of diseases linked to infectious microbes, there is a good possibility that the microbes might be causing the disease, but further research is needed to work out whether these microbes do play a causal role.

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to microbes, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of microbe-associated illnesses.
{| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0"
| style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''Microbes Linked to the Disease'''
|-
| '''Alzheimer's disease'''
| Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>, [[Helicobacter pylori]]<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and Fusobacterium nucleatum.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Periodontal Pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum Exacerbates Alzheimer’s Pathogenesis via Specific Pathways|date=2022 Jun 23|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9260256/|journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience|volume=14|pages=912709|last=Wu|first=Hongle|last2=Qiu|first2=Wei|last3=Zhu|first3=Xiaofang|last4=Li|first4=Xiangfen|last5=Xie|first5=Zhongcong|last6=Carreras|first6=Isabel|last7=Dedeoglu|first7=Alpaslan|last8=Dyke|first8=Thomas Van|last9=Han|first9=Yiping W.|last10=Karimbux|first10=Nadeem|last11=Tu|first11=Qisheng|language=en|doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.912709|pmc=9260256|pmid=35813949}}</ref> Alzheimer's is associated with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref>
Alzheimer's is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1 in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref> Alzheimer's has been linked to [[cytomegalovirus]] infection of the brain, which may enter the brain by travelling along the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alzheimer's disease-associated CD83(+) microglia are linked with increased immunoglobulin G4 and human cytomegalovirus in the gut, vagal nerve, and brain|date=2024-12-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39698934/|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association|last=Readhead|first=Benjamin P.|last2=Mastroeni|first2=Diego F.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi|last4=Sierra|first4=Maria A.|last5=de Ávila|first5=Camila|last6=Jimoh|first6=Tajudeen O.|last7=Haure-Mirande|first7=Jean-Vianney|last8=Atanasoff|first8=Kristina E.|last9=Nolz|first9=Jennifer|last10=Suazo|first10=Crystal|last11=Barton|first11=Nathaniel J.|doi=10.1002/alz.14401|pmid=39698934|issn=1552-5279}}</ref> The viruses [[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal|title=Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|date=Dec 2015|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|last=Pisa|first=Diana|authorlink=|last2=Alonso|first2=Ruth|authorlink2=|last3=Rábano|first3=Alberto|authorlink3=|last4=Rodal|first4=Izaskun|authorlink4=|last5=Carrasco|first5=Luis|authorlink5=|language=en|doi=10.1038/srep15015|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|issn=2045-2322|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]'''
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with retrovirus<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
|-
| '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]'''
| Infection with borrelia species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa.<ref name="pmid7943444" /> In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[Streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. Adolescent girls who had hospital-treated infections, or had less severe infections treated with anti-infective agents, were found to be at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Exposure to Infections in Childhood With Risk of Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls|date=2019 Apr 24|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6487907/|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=76|issue=8|pages=800|last=Breithaupt|first=Lauren|last2=Köhler-Forsberg|first2=Ole|last3=Larsen|first3=Janne Tidselbak|last4=Benros|first4=Michael E.|last5=Thornton|first5=Laura Marie|last6=Bulik|first6=Cynthia M.|last7=Petersen|first7=Liselotte|language=en|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0297|pmc=6487907|pmid=31017632}}</ref> [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" />
|-
| '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]'''
| Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Helicobacter pylori Infection with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|date=10 July 2024|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/9247586|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|last=Li|first=L|last2=Ren|first2=Y|doi=10.1155/2024/9247586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Helicobacter pylori infection association with anxiety in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms in Hadhramout|url=https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/helicobacter-pylori-infection-association-with-anxiety-in-patients-with-upper-gastrointestinal-symptoms-in-hadhramout-27168.html|journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Digestive Diseases|volume=8|issue=5|pages=daakeek|last=Ahmed M.|last2=Musiaan|first2=Nabeel S.|last3=Al-Zaazaai|first3=Ahmed}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Infection with Toxoplasma gondii increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study|date=2020 Jul 30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10317747/|journal=Parasitology|volume=147|issue=13|pages=1577|last=Lin|first=Hsin-An|last2=Chien|first2=Wu-Chien|last3=Huang|first3=Kuo-Yang|last4=Chung|first4=Chi-Hsiang|last5=Chen|first5=Lih-Chyang|last6=Lin|first6=Hsin-Chung|last7=Guo|first7=Jong-Long|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0031182020001183|pmc=10317747|pmid=32729456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Population-based cohort study of Toxoplasma gondii P22 antibody positivity correlation with anxiety|date=2024-08-15|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38729222/|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=359|pages=41–48|last=Yang|first=Lili|last2=Wang|first2=Biyun|last3=Wu|first3=Shuizhen|last4=Yang|first4=Zihan|last5=Xin|first5=Zixuan|last6=Zheng|first6=Shuyu|last7=Zou|first7=Weihao|last8=Zhang|first8=Chi|last9=Chen|first9=Jiating|last10=Peng|first10=Hongjuan|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.043|pmid=38729222|issn=1573-2517}}</ref> and associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Asthma]]'''
| Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref>
|-
| '''Atherosclerosis'''
| Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> Atherosclerosis is linked to the bacteria Helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref>
|-
| '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder'''
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[Streptococcus]], and with the viruses HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].
Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref>
|-
| '''Autism'''
| Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s'''
| Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases are linked to the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref>
|-
| '''Bipolar disorder'''
| Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Cancer]]'''
|Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to microbial causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the microbes currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some microbes proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to microbes that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

* '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref>
* '''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref>
* '''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by Schistosoma helminths.<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref>
* '''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref>
* '''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref>
* '''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref>
* '''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[Helicobacter pylori]], Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref>
* '''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref>
* '''Hodgkin's lymphoma''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref>
* '''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
* '''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref>
* '''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref>
* '''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
* '''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
* '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref>
* '''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
* '''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref>
* '''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.
* '''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with mumps virus.<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref>
* '''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref>
* '''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref>
* '''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref>
* '''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref>
* '''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref>
* '''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]'''
|Myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is primarily associated with two [[enterovirus]]es, namely [[Coxsackie B virus]] and [[echovirus]] (for references see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]); with three [[herpesviruses]], namely [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[cytomegalovirus]] and [[human herpesvirus 6]] (for references see [[list of herpesvirus infection studies]]); and with [[SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref>
More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6:58|access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after Giardia enteritis: clinical characteristics, disability and long-term sickness absence|date=2012-02-08|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22316329/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=12|pages=13|last=Naess|first=Halvor|last2=Nyland|first2=Morten|last3=Hausken|first3=Trygve|last4=Follestad|first4=Inghild|last5=Nyland|first5=Harald I.|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-12-13|pmc=3292445|pmid=22316329|issn=1471-230X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome 5 years after giardiasis: differential diagnoses, characteristics and natural course|date=2013-02-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399438/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=13|pages=28|last=Mørch|first=Kristine|last2=Hanevik|first2=Kurt|last3=Rivenes|first3=Ann C.|last4=Bødtker|first4=Jørn E.|last5=Næss|first5=Halvor|last6=Stubhaug|first6=Bjarte|last7=Wensaas|first7=Knut-Arne|last8=Rortveit|first8=Guri|last9=Eide|first9=Geir E.|last10=Hausken|first10=Trygve|last11=Langeland|first11=Nina|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-13-28|pmc=3598369|pmid=23399438|issn=1471-230X}}</ref> [[Ross River virus]] <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Changing epidemiology of Ross River virus disease in South Australia|date=1996-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8862330/|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=165|issue=6|pages=313–317|last=Selden|first=S. M.|last2=Cameron|first2=A. S.|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124989.x|pmid=8862330|issn=0025-729X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study|date=2006-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16950834/|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=333|issue=7568|pages=575|last=Hickie|first=Ian|last2=Davenport|first2=Tracey|last3=Wakefield|first3=Denis|last4=Vollmer-Conna|first4=Ute|last5=Cameron|first5=Barbara|last6=Vernon|first6=Suzanne D.|last7=Reeves|first7=William C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Andrew|last9=Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group|doi=10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE|pmc=1569956|pmid=16950834|issn=1756-1833}}</ref> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evaluation of Prolonged Fatigue Post–West Nile Virus Infection and Association of Fatigue with Elevated Antiviral and Proinflammatory Cytokines|date=2014-09-01|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4150370/|journal=Viral Immunology|volume=27|issue=7|pages=327–333|last=Garcia|first=Melissa N.|last2=Hause|first2=Anne M.|last3=Walker|first3=Christopher M.|last4=Orange|first4=Jordan S.|last5=Hasbun|first5=Rodrigo|last6=Murray|first6=Kristy O.|doi=10.1089/vim.2014.0035|pmc=4150370|pmid=25062274|issn=0882-8245}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic myocarditis'''
|Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease'''
|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Crohn's disease]]'''
|Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus Candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]] and Serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref> Crohn's disease development has been linked to commensal yeast Candida albicans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An immunological link between Candida albicans colonization and Crohn's disease|date=2015-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23855357/|journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology|volume=41|issue=2|pages=135–139|last=Gerard|first=Romain|last2=Sendid|first2=Boualem|last3=Colombel|first3=Jean-Frederic|last4=Poulain|first4=Daniel|last5=Jouault|first5=Thierry|doi=10.3109/1040841X.2013.810587|pmid=23855357|issn=1549-7828}}</ref> One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref> Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref> In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when all three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
|-
|'''Coronary heart disease'''
|Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dementia'''
|Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444" />
|-
|'''[[Depression]]'''
|Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> Depression is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and psychiatric disorders: a cross-sectional study in China|date=2022 Sep 5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9445102/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=15092|last=Liu|first=Taixiu|last2=Gao|first2=Peng|last3=Bu|first3=Deyun|last4=Liu|first4=Dong|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-16420-y|pmc=9445102|pmid=36064811}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref>

* '''[[depression|Major depressive disorder]]''' is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> as well as [[Bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal | last = Schaller | first = James L. | last2 = Burkland | first2 = Glenn A. | last3 = Langhoff | first3 = P.J. | date = 2007-09-13 | title = Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3 | pages = 54|issn=1531-0132|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060}}</ref> and [[Borrelia]]<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
* '''Seasonal affective disorder''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]'''
|Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[Coxsackie B virus]] can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms.<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref>
Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref>

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family.
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]'''
|Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus.<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from a Staphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dilated cardiomyopathy'''
|Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref>
|-
|'''Epilepsy'''
|Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) infection of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]'''
|Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref>
|-
|'''[[Hypertension]]'''
|Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref>
|-
|'''Infertility'''
|Infertility is linked to an endometrium infection with [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus variant A (HHV-6A).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Interstitial cystitis]]'''
|The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomaviruses, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> and treatment with the EBV antiviral valacyclovir results in clinical improvement in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary Viral Spectrum in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome and the Clinical Efficacy of Valacyclovir Treatment|date=2024-02-26|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38540138/|journal=Biomedicines|volume=12|issue=3|pages=522|last=Kuo|first=Hann-Chorng|last2=Peng|first2=Chih-Wen|last3=Jiang|first3=Yuan-Hong|last4=Jhang|first4=Jia-Fong|doi=10.3390/biomedicines12030522|pmc=10967905|pmid=38540138|issn=2227-9059}}</ref>
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|'''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]'''
|Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> IBS is linked to protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> IBS in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Lower back pain]]'''
|Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]'''
|Systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with the viruses [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal | last = James | first = Judith A. | last2 = Harley | first2 = John B. | last3 = Scofield | first3 = R. Hal | date = Sep 2006 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5 | pages = 462–467|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|issn=1040-8711|pmid=16896283}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref>
|-
|'''Macular degeneration'''
|Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high cytomegalovirus antibody titers.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Metabolic syndrome]]'''
|Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and Helicobacter pylori. It is also linked to the viruses cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'''
|Multiple sclerosis is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus.<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> One study found EBV in the brain tissues of most ME patients.<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2|pages=e0192109|last=Hassani|first=Asma|last2=Corboy|first2=John R.|last3=Al-Salam|first3=Suhail|last4=Khan|first4=Gulfaraz|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> A landmark 2022 longitudinal study provided strong evidence that EBV is the leading cause of multiple sclerosis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Longitudinal analysis reveals high prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus associated with multiple sclerosis|date=2022-01-21|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35025605/|journal=Science|volume=375|issue=6578|pages=296–301|last=Bjornevik|first=Kjetil|last2=Cortese|first2=Marianna|last3=Healy|first3=Brian C.|last4=Kuhle|first4=Jens|last5=Mina|first5=Michael J.|last6=Leng|first6=Yumei|last7=Elledge|first7=Stephen J.|last8=Niebuhr|first8=David W.|last9=Scher|first9=Ann I.|last10=Munger|first10=Kassandra L.|last11=Ascherio|first11=Alberto|language=en|doi=10.1126/science.abj8222|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Multiple sclerosis is also linked to [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref>
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|'''Myocardial infarction'''
|Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of a sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref>
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|'''Myopia'''
|Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough) and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref>
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|'''[[Obesity]]'''
|Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Adenovirus 36 prevalence and association with human obesity: a systematic review|date=2021-03-22|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41366-021-00805-6|journal=International Journal of Obesity|volume=45|issue=6|pages=1342–1356|last=da Silva Fernandes|first=Jaime|last2=Schuelter-Trevisol|first2=Fabiana|last3=Cancelier|first3=Ana Carolina Lobor|last4=Gonçalves e Silva|first4=Helena Caetano|last5=de Sousa|first5=Daiana Gomes|last6=Atkinson|first6=Richard L.|last7=Trevisol|first7=Daisson José|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41366-021-00805-6|issn=0307-0565}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36, adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37 will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> It is known that adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref> Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref>
Obesity is associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium, [[Staphylococcus]], [[Streptococcus]], and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref>
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'''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]'''
|Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with Streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
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'''[[Panic disorder]]'''
|Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" />
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'''[[Parkinson's disease]]'''
|Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]],<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7|pages=302|last=Dourmashkin|first=Robert R.|last2=McCall|first2=Sherman A.|last3=Dourmashkin|first3=Neil|last4=Hannah|first4=Matthew J.|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977|issn=2046-1402}}</ref> Ljungan virus (from the picornavirus family),<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> and [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus.<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> Human pegivirus is found in the brains of 50% of Parkinson's patients, but is not found in the brains of controls.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Human pegivirus alters brain and blood immune and transcriptomic profiles of patients with Parkinson’s disease|date=2025-07-08|url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/189988|journal=JCI Insight|volume=10|issue=13|last=Hanson|first=Barbara A.|last2=Dang|first2=Xin|last3=Jamshidi|first3=Pouya|last4=Steffens|first4=Alicia|last5=Copenhaver|first5=Kaleigh|last6=Orban|first6=Zachary S.|last7=Bustos|first7=Bernabe|last8=Lubbe|first8=Stephen J.|last9=Castellani|first9=Rudolph J.|last10=Koralnik|first10=Igor J.|language=en|doi=10.1172/jci.insight.189988|issn=2379-3708}}</ref> Parkinson's is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref>
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'''Psoriasis'''
|Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref>
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'''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]'''
|Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and Proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[Borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref>
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'''[[Sarcoidosis]]'''
|Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref>
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'''Schizophrenia'''
|Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]].<ref name="pmid12857781" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name=":1" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> Borrelia,<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella henselae (the cause of cat scratch disease).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref>
One study found that a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found influenza virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk that the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref>

Individuals experiencing acute psychosis are nearly 11 times more likely to have a urinary tract infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary tract infections in acute psychosis|date=2014-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24499998/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=75|issue=4|pages=379–385|last=Graham|first=Krystle L.|last2=Carson|first2=Chelsea M.|last3=Ezeoke|first3=Amaka|last4=Buckley|first4=Peter F.|last5=Miller|first5=Brian J.|doi=10.4088/JCP.13m08469|pmid=24499998|issn=1555-2101}}</ref>
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'''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]'''
|Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the enterovirus [[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref>
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'''Stroke'''
|Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[Helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> Mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> Stroke is linked to [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus Histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref>
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'''Tourette syndrome'''
|Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[Streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref>
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|'''Valvular heart disease'''
|Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissues.
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'''Vasculitis'''
|Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.
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==How persistent microbes in the body may give rise to a disease==
Persistent microbes residing in the body can cause damage or dysfunction by numerous means:

* Microbes can infect and destroy host cells
* Microbes may secrete toxins, enzymes or metabolic by-products that damage host tissues or disrupt physiological processes
* Microbes may modify host gene expression
* Microbes may promote genetic mutations that lead to tumour development
* Microbes may induce a host immune response against them, causing collateral damage to the tissues
* Microbes may trigger autoimmunity leading to inflammatory damage to the body
* Microbial immune evasion tactics may lead to immune dysfunction (to aid their survival, all microbes living in the body engage in immune evasion, which involves the microbe synthesising immunomodulating proteins that thwart or disrupt immune system functioning)

==Difficulties in determining whether a pathogenic microbe might be causing a disease==
Determining whether a pathogenic microbe plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:
*The time between contracting the infectious microbe and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
*An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
*An infectious microbe may not cause its associated disease in every person.
*Only specific strains of a microbe may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).<ref name="Mechelli2015">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref>
*A given disease may be precipitated by more than one microbe.
*A microbe may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
*A microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
*Some microbes are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect microbes to a disease.
*For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
*A microbe may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the microbe.
In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large body of published studies demonstrating these associations.

==Notable studies==
*2000, [https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2000.0016 Infectious Causation of Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective] - Gregory Cochran, Paul W. Ewald ''et al''
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83689/ The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary] - Forum on Microbial Threats
*2004, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128097/ Virus-induced neurobehavioral disorders: mechanisms and implications] - Keizo Tomonaga
*2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011700/ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/eid/vol4no3/adobe/cassell.pdf Infectious Causes of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer] - Gail H. Cassell
*2006, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291059/ Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases] - Siobhán M O'Connor ''et al''
*2006, [[pmc:1479565/|The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers: it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human micro ecology and the nature of chronic disease]] - Caroline Hadley
*2008, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioral-psychiatric-au Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2010, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioural-psychiatric-a Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2011, [https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=jsbhs The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings] - Wendy Bjerke
*2012, [https://mpkb.org/home/pathogenesis/evidence_bacteria Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens] - Autoimmunity Research Foundation
*2012, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS407997/ Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases] - Steven S Coughlin
*2013, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23935899/ Causal Inference Regarding Infectious Aetiology of Chronic Conditions: A Systematic Review] - Sofia Orrskog ''et al''
*2023, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779437/ Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future] - Robert C Bransfield ''et al''
*2024, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349683/ Viral infections in etiology of mental disorders: a broad analysis of cytokine profile similarities – a narrative review] - Piotr Lorkiewicz ''et al''

==Articles and blogs==
*1999, [https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/0223102a.html Do Germs Cause Cancer?] - Forbes
*1999 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/a-new-germ-theory/377430/ A New Germ Theory] - The Atlantic Monthly Magazine
*1999, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199907/the-infection-connection The Infection Connection] - Psychology Today
*2005, [https://www.alzforum.org/webinars/pathogen-hypothesis-challenging-primacy-genetics-late-onset-alzheimer-disease?liveID=36 Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease] - Alzheimer Research Forum
*2008, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080522155752.htm The Emerging Role Of Infection In Alzheimer's Disease] - Science Daily
*2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230530004102/https://microbeminded.com/2017/11/11/interview-with-evolutionary-biologist-paul-ewald-infection-and-chronic-disease/ Interview With Evolutionary Biologist Paul Ewald] - Amy Proal
*2008, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infected-with-insanity/ Infected with Insanity: Could Microbes Cause Mental Illness?] - Scientific American
*2009, [https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-big-idea-that-might-beat-cancer-and-cut-health-care-costs-by-80-percent The Big Idea That Might Beat Cancer and Cut Health-Care Costs by 80 Percent] - Discover Magazine
*2010, [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/crohns-disease-triggers-may-include-viruses-other-factors Crohn’s Disease Triggers May Include Viruses and Other Factors] - National Institutes of Health
*2012, [https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-an-infection-suddenly-cause-ocd-201202274417 Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?] - Harvard Health Blog
*2012, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-perfectionists-handbook/201202/can-infections-result-in-mental-illness Can Infections Result in Mental Illness?] - Psychology Today
*2013, [https://www.medicaldaily.com/people-hospitalized-infections-are-62-more-likely-develop-mood-disorder-246876 People Hospitalized For Infections Are 62% More Likely To Develop A Mood Disorder] - Medical Daily
*2014, [https://www.livescience.com/43356-chronic-infections-cognitive-decline.html Chronic Infections Linked with Memory Problems Later in Life] - Live Science
*2015, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/05/150521095016.htm Infections can affect your IQ] - Science Daily
*2016, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q9zAG92V9M Toward a Unified, Evolutionary Theory of Cancer] - Paul Ewald: video on the infectious causes of cancer
*2019, [https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/psychiatric-disorders-are-infectious-agents-blame Psychiatric Disorders: Are Infectious Agents to Blame?] - Psychiatric Times
*2023, [https://www.mdedge.com/rheumatology/article/264214/long-covid/infection-related-chronic-illness-new-paradigm-research-and/page/0/1 Infection-related chronic illness: A new paradigm for research and treatment] - MDedge
*2023, [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/22/health/viral-infections-autoimmune-covid.html How Viral Infections Cause Long-Term Health Problems] - New York Tines

==Books==
*2002, [https://www.amazon.com/Plague-Time-Germ-Theory-Disease/dp/0385721846 Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease] - Paul W. Ewald
*2003, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714733_Microcompetition_with_Foreign_DNA_and_the_Origin_of_Chronic_Disease Microcompetition With Foreign DNA And the Origin of Chronic Disease] - Hanan Polansky
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561283/ Microbial Triggers of Chronic Human Illness] - American Society for Microbiology
*2006, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Potbelly-Syndrome-Obesity-Diabetes-Disease/dp/159120058X Potbelly Syndrome: How Common Germs Lead to Obesity, Diabetes and Heart Disease] - Russel Farris and Per Marin
*2008, [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5996250-stealth-germs-in-your-body Stealth Germs in Your Body] - Erno Daniel

==See also==
*[[Virus]]
*[[Pathogen]]s
*[[:Category:Triggers and risk factors|Triggers and risk factors (category)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Lists]]

List of herpesvirus infection studies

2025-07-10T05:07:46Z

Hip:/* Epstein-Barr virus studies */ Added Hannestad et al study

Herpesvirus family viruses including [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[human herpesvirus 6]] (HHV-6) and [[cytomegalovirus]] are associated with [[myalgic encephalomyelitis]]. This article lists herpesvirus studies examining the role and prevalence of herpesviruses in ME/CFS patients. Positive studies (finding herpesvirus more prevalent in ME/CFS patients than healthy controls) are indicated by a <big class="green">'''+'''</big> symbol, whereas negative studies (finding no significant difference in prevalence between patients and healthy controls) are indicated by the <big class="red">'''−'''</big> symbol.

==Epstein-Barr virus studies==
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is found in 95% of the adult population (usually in a latent state),<ref name="CDC-about">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/epstein-barr/about-ebv.html | title = Epstein-barr {{!}} Mononucleosis {{!}} About Virus {{!}} Mono {{!}} CDC | date = 2019-01-28 | website = [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|language=en-us|access-date=2020-08-19}}</ref> and is the most common cause of [[mononucleosis]].
{| class="wikitable alternance"
! scope="col" style="width: 10px;" |
! scope="col" style="width: 270px;" | Study Title
! scope="col" style="width: 32px;" | Date
! scope="col" style="Xwidth: 200px;" | Details
|-
|'''<big class="green">+</big>'''
|'''Chronic fatigue syndrome: clinical condition associated with immune activation'''
A L Landay, C Jessop, E T Lennette, J A Levy<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Landay|first = A.L. | last2 = Jessop | first2 = C. | last3 = Lennette | first3 = E.T. | last4 = Levy | first4 = J.A. | date = 1991-09-21 | title = Chronic fatigue syndrome: clinical condition associated with immune activation | url =https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1679864/|journal=Lancet (London, England)|volume=338|issue=8769 | pages = 707–712|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(91)91440-6|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1679864}}</ref>
|1991
|This study found CFS patients had a significantly higher prevalence of antibodies to EBV-EA (Early Antigen) than did controls; 32 of 63 (51%) patients compared to 6 of 40 (15%) controls.
|-
|'''<big class="green">+</big>'''
|'''Persistent virus infection of muscle in postviral fatigue syndrome'''
L Cunningham, N E Bowles, L C Archard<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Cunningham|first = L. | last2 = Bowles | first2 = N.E. | last3 = Archard | first3 = L.C. | date = Oct 1991 | title = Persistent virus infection of muscle in postviral fatigue syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1665379/|journal=British Medical Bulletin|volume=47|issue=4 | pages = 852–871|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a072516|issn=0007-1420|pmid=1665379}}</ref>
|1991
|[[Postviral fatigue syndrome|Postviral Fatigue Syndrome]] (PVFS) patients suffering from chronic muscle fatiguability were studied to test their association with viral infection versus healthy controls. EBV DNA was found in muscle biopsies in 8 of 86 (9%) PVFS patients and in 0 of 36 (0%) controls.
|-
|'''<big class="green">+</big>'''
|'''Simultaneous measurement of antibodies to Epstein-Barr virus, human herpesvirus 6, herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2, and 14 enteroviruses in chronic fatigue syndrome: is there evidence of activation of a nonspecific polyclonal immune response?'''

F A Manian<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Manian | first = F.A. | date = Sep 1994 | title = Simultaneous measurement of antibodies to Epstein-Barr virus, human herpesvirus 6, herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2, and 14 enteroviruses in chronic fatigue syndrome: is there evidence of activation of a nonspecific polyclonal immune response?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7811864/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=19|issue=3 | pages = 448–453|doi=10.1093/clinids/19.3.448|issn=1058-4838|pmid=7811864}}</ref>
|1994
|20 patients with CFS and 20 age- and gender-matched controls were compared to test for potential differences in viral antibody titers. EBV viral capsid antigen (VCA) IgG was present at titers ≥ 1:320 in 11 of 20 (55%) CFS patients vs. 3 of 20 (15%) Controls.

|-
|'''<big class="red">−</big>'''
|'''Viral serologies in patients with chronic fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome'''

[[Dedra Buchwald]], Rhoda L. Ashley, Tsilke Pearlman, Phalla Kith, and Anthony L. Komaroff<ref name="Buchwald1996b">{{Cite journal|last = Buchwald | first = D. | last2 = Ashley | first2 = R.L. | last3 = Pearlman | first3 = T. | last4 = Kith | first4 = P. | last5 = Komaroff | first5 = A.L. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Viral serologies in patients with chronic fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8890037/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=50|issue=1|pages=25–30|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1096-9071(199609)50:13.0.CO;2-V|issn=0146-6615|pmid=8890037}}</ref>
|1996
|Large study was performed on CFS patients and healthy control subjects to compare antibodies to various viruses. Epstein-Barr virus antibody results shown in table below.
{| class="wikitable transparent"
!
!VCA IgG >1:640
!VCA IgM Positive
!Early Antigen (EA) Positive
|-
|CFS Patients
|24 of 308 (8%)
|2 of 310 (1%)
|56 of 306 (18%)
|-
|Healthy Controls
|1 of 30 (3%)
|1 of 30 (3%)
|7 of 30 (23%)
|}
|-
|'''<big class="green">+</big>'''
|'''Diagnostic evaluation of 2′, 5′-oligoadenylate synthetase activities and antibodies against Epstein–Barr virus and Coxiella burnetii in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome in Japan'''
Kazufumi Ikuta, Takeshi Yamada, Tokio Shimomura, Hirohiko Kuratsune, Ryuzo Kawahara, Shiro Ikawa, Eiko Ohnishi, Yoshihiro Sokawa, Hideto Fukushi, Katsuya Hirai, Yasuyoshi Watanabe, Takeshi Kurata, Teruo Kitani, Takeshi Sairenji<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Ikuta | first = Kazufumi | last2 = Yamada | first2 = Takeshi | last3 = Shimomura | first3 = Tokio | last4 = Kuratsune | first4 = Hirohiko | last5 = Kawahara | first5 = Ryuzo | last6 = Ikawa | first6 = Shiro | last7 = Ohnishi | first7 = Eiko | last8 = Sokawa | first8 = Yoshihiro | last9 = Fukushi | first9 = Hideto | date = Oct 2003 | title = Diagnostic evaluation of 2′, 5′-oligoadenylate synthetase activities and antibodies against Epstein–Barr virus and Coxiella burnetii in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome in Japan | url =https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1286457903002193|journal=Microbes and Infection|language=en|volume=5|issue=12|pages=1096–1102|doi=10.1016/j.micinf.2003.07.002|issn=1286-4579}}</ref>
|2003
|A total of 44 ME/CFS patients from two Japanese hospitals located in different areas of the country were tested for EBV Early Antigen (EA) antibodies, and were compared to healthy controls. EA IgG was found positive in 9 of 44 (20%) CFS patients and 0 of 9 (0%) controls.
|-
|'''<big class="green">+</big>'''
|'''IgM serum antibodies to Epstein-Barr virus are uniquely present in a subset of patients with the chronic fatigue syndrome'''
[[A Martin Lerner]], Safedin H Beqaj, Robert G Deeter, James T Fitzgerald<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Lerner | first = A. Martin | last2 = Beqaj | first2 = Safedin H. | last3 = Deeter | first3 = Robert G. | last4 = Fitzgerald | first4 = James T. | date = Mar 2004 | title = IgM serum antibodies to Epstein-Barr virus are uniquely present in a subset of patients with the chronic fatigue syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15113035/|journal=In Vivo (Athens, Greece)|volume=18|issue=2|pages=101–106|issn=0258-851X|pmid=15113035}}</ref>
|2004
|58 ME/CFS patients and 68 non-CFS matched controls were studied for possible active EBV infection through serum antibodies. VCA IgM was positive in 33 of 58 (57%) CFS patients and 5 of 68 (7%) controls. Early Antigen (EA) IgG was positive in 51 of 58 (88%) CFS patients and 24 of 68 (35%) controls.
|-
|'''<big class="green">+</big>'''
|'''Chronic fatigue syndrome after infectious mononucleosis in adolescents'''
[[Ben Katz|Ben Z Katz]], Yukiko Shiraishi, Cynthia J Mears, Helen J Binns, Renee Taylor <ref>{{Cite journal | last = Katz|first = Ben Z. | last2 = Shiraishi | first2 = Yukiko | last3 = Mears | first3 = Cynthia J. | last4 = Binns | first4 = Helen J. | last5 = Taylor | first5 = Renee | authorlink5 = Renee Taylor | date = Jul 2009 | title = Chronic fatigue syndrome after infectious mononucleosis in adolescents|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19564299/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=124|issue=1|pages=189–193|doi=10.1542/peds.2008-1879|issn=1098-4275|pmc=2756827|pmid=19564299}}</ref>
| 2009
| This study of 301 adolescents with infectious mononucleosis found that at 6, 12, and 24 months after mononucleosis, 13%, 7%, and 4% of these adolescents respectively met the criteria for ME/CFS.
|-
|'''<big class="red">−</big>'''
|'''Detection of herpesviruses and parvovirus B19 in gastric and intestinal mucosa of chronic fatigue syndrome patients'''
Marc Frémont, Kristine Metzger, Hamada Rady, Jan Hulstaert, Kenny De Meirleir<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Frémont | first = Marc | last2 = Metzger | first2 = Kristine | last3 = Rady | first3 = Hamada | last4 = Hulstaert | first4 = Jan | last5 = De Meirleir | first5 = Kenny | date = Mar 2009 | title = Detection of herpesviruses and parvovirus B19 in gastric and intestinal mucosa of chronic fatigue syndrome patients|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19414405/|journal=In Vivo (Athens, Greece)|volume=23|issue=2|pages=209–213|issn=0258-851X|pmid=19414405}}</ref>
|2009
|Stomach and duodenum biopsies using DNA PCR found only a slight increase in CFS patients that were positive for EBV compared to controls.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!CFS Patients
!Healthy Controls
|-
|DNA Stomach Biopsy
|10 of 48 (21%)
|6 of 35 (17%)
|-
|DNA Duodenum Biopsy
|15 of 48 (31%)
|5 of 35 (15%)
|}
|-
|'''<big class="green">+</big>'''
|'''Antibody to Epstein-Barr virus deoxyuridine triphosphate nucleotidohydrolase and deoxyribonucleotide polymerase in a chronic fatigue syndrome subset'''
A Martin Lerner, Maria E Ariza, Marshall Williams, Leonard Jason, Safedin Beqaj, James T Fitzgerald, Stanley Lemeshow, Ronald Glaser <ref>{{Cite journal|last = Lerner | first = A. Martin | last2 = Ariza | first2 = Maria E. | last3 = Williams | first3 = Marshall | last4 = Jason | first4 = Leonard | last5 = Beqaj | first5 = Safedin | last6 = Fitzgerald | first6 = James T. | last7 = Lemeshow | first7 = Stanley | last8 = Glaser | first8 = Ronald| date = 2012 | title = Antibody to Epstein-Barr virus deoxyuridine triphosphate nucleotidohydrolase and deoxyribonucleotide polymerase in a chronic fatigue syndrome subset|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23155374/|journal=PloS One|volume=7|issue=11| pages = e47891|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0047891|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3498272|pmid=23155374}}</ref>
|2012
|This study of 20 ME/CFS patients and 20 healthy controls found 94% of patients were positive for EBV early antigen diffuse, versus 32% of the healthy controls; 44% of patients were positive for EBV dUTPase, versus 0% of the controls; 79% of patients were positive for EBV DNA polymerase, versus 0% of the controls.
|-
|'''<big class="red">−</big>'''
|'''Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Gulf War Illness patients exhibit increased humoral responses to the Herpesviruses-encoded dUTPase: Implications in disease pathophysiology'''
Peter Halpin, Marshall Vance Williams, Nancy G. Klimas, Mary Ann Fletcher, Zachary Barnes, Maria Eugenia Ariza<ref name=":5" />
|2017
|Antibodies against multiple human herpesviruses-encoded dUTPases were shown as being simultaneously produced in (30.91–52.7%) ME/CFS patients and (17.21%) of controls. EBV dUTPase antibodies were present in 16 of 55 (29%) CFS patients and 39 of 151 (26%) controls.
|-
|'''<big class="green">+</big>'''
|'''Cytomegalovirus, Epstein‐Barr virus, and human herpesvirus‐6 infections in patients with myalgic еncephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome'''
[[Evelina Shikova]], Valentina Reshkova, Аntoniya Kumanova, Sevdalina Raleva, Dora Alexandrova, Natasa Capo, Modra Murovska<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last = Shikova | first = Evelina | last2 = Reshkova | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Kumanova | first3 = Аntoniya | last4 = Raleva | first4 = Sevdalina | last5 = Alexandrova | first5 = Dora | last6 = Capo | first6 = Natasa | last7 = Murovska | first7 = Modra | title = Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, and human herpesvirus-6 infections in patients with myalgic еncephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jmv.25744|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=n/a|issue=n/a|doi=10.1002/jmv.25744|issn=1096-9071}}</ref>
| 2020
| Study of 58 Bulgarian ME/CFS patients and 50 healthy controls found EBV DNA in the plasma of 14 of 58 (24%) patients vs. 2 of 50 (4%) controls.
|-
|'''<big class="green">+</big>'''
|'''Prevalence of EBV, HHV6, HCMV, HAdV, SARS-CoV-2, and Autoantibodies to Type I Interferon in Sputum from Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Patients'''
Ulf Hannestad, Annika Allard, Kent Nilsson, Anders Rosén<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Prevalence of EBV, HHV6, HCMV, HAdV, SARS-CoV-2, and Autoantibodies to Type I Interferon in Sputum from Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Patients|date=2025-03-14|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40143349/|journal=Viruses|volume=17|issue=3|pages=422|last=Hannestad|first=Ulf|last2=Allard|first2=Annika|last3=Nilsson|first3=Kent|last4=Rosén|first4=Anders|language=en|doi=10.3390/v17030422|issn=1999-4915}}</ref>
|2025
|ME/CFS patients, compared to controls, have a significantly higher load of EBV.
|}

==HHV-6 studies==
HHV-6 is found in nearly 100% of adults (usually in a latent state).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Ansari|first = Asad | last2 = Li | first2 = Shaobing | last3 = Abzug | first3 = Mark J. | last4 = Weinberg | first4 = Adriana | date = Aug 2004 | title = Human Herpesviruses 6 and 7 and Central Nervous System Infection in Children1|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3320425/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=10|issue=8|pages=1450–1454|doi=10.3201/eid1008.030788|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3320425|pmid=15496247}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable alternance"
! scope="col" style="width: 10px;" |
! scope="col" style="width: 270px;" | Study Title
! scope="col" style="width: 32px;" | Date
! scope="col" style="Xwidth: 200px;" | Details
|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''A chronic illness characterized by fatigue, neurologic and immunologic disorders, and active human herpesvirus type 6 infection'''
Dedra Buchwald, Paul R Cheney, Daniel L Peterson, Berch Henry, Susan B Wormsley, Ann Geiger, Dharam V Ablashi, S Zaki Salahuddin, Carl Saxinger, Royce Biddle, Ron Kikinis, Ferenc A Jolesz, Thomas Folks, N Balachandran, James B Peter, Robert C Gallo, Anthony L Komaroff<ref name="Buchwald1996a">{{Cite journal|last = Buchwald | first = Dedra | last2 = Cheney | first2 = Paul R. | last3 = Peterson | first3 = Daniel L. | last4 = Henry | first4 = Berch | last5 = Wormsley | first5 = Susan B. | last6 = Geiger | first6 = Ann | last7 = Ablashi | first7 = Dharam V. | last8 = Salahuddin | first8 = S. Zaki | last9 = Saxinger | first9 = CArl | date = Jan 15, 1992 | title = A chronic illness characterized by fatigue, neurologic and immunologic disorders, and active human herpesvirus type 6 infection | url =https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1309285/|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|volume=116|issue=2|pages=103–113|doi=10.7326/0003-4819-116-2-103|issn=0003-4819|pmid=1309285}}</ref>
|1992
|This study reviewed patients in the Lake Tahoe area with a chronic debilitating illness of acute onset, a portion of which were regularly bedridden or shut-in. Using lymphocyte cell culture, DNA PCR, and monoclonal antibody assay, active HHV-6 replication was found in 79 of 113 (70%) patients and 8 of 40 (20%) controls.

Despite limitations of this study involving a small geographic area and relatively moderate study size, the results may be seen as significant due to the extensive analysis, and investigative measures conducted. Measurements used in the study include [[Magnetic resonance imaging|Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)]], [[cerebrospinal fluid]] (CFS) analysis, standard lab testing, lymphocyte phenotyping, cell culture bioassay, and serologic testing.
|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''Prevalence of human herpesvirus 6 variants A and B in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome'''
S Yalcin, H Kuratsune, K Yamaguchi, T Kitani, K Yamanishi <ref>{{Cite journal|last = Yalcin | first = S. | last2 = Kuratsune | first2 = H. | last3 = Yamaguchi | first3 = K. | last4 = Kitani | first4 = T. | last5 = Yamanishi | first5 = K. | date = 1994 | title = Prevalence of human herpesvirus 6 variants A and B in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7968694/|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=38|issue=7 | pages = 587–590|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1994.tb01827.x|issn=0385-5600|pmid=7968694}}</ref>
|1994
|This study examined 13 cases of ME/CFS and 13 healthy controls. In the peripheral blood mononuclear cells, HHV-6 DNA was detected in 53% of the patients, but no HHV-6 DNA was detected in the controls. Higher antibody levels to the HHV-6 late antigen were found in patients, and antibodies to HHV-6 early antigen were more prevalent in patients.
|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''Human herpesvirus 6 and human herpesvirus 7 in chronic fatigue syndrome'''
D Di Luca, M Zorzenon, P Mirandola, R Colle, G A Botta, E Cassai<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last = Luca | first = D. Di | last2 = Zorzenon | first2 = M. | last3 = Mirandola | first3 = P. | last4 = Colle | first4 = R. | last5 = Botta | first5 = G.A. |last6 = Cassai | first6 = E. | date = 1995-06-01 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 and human herpesvirus 7 in chronic fatigue syndrome.|url=https://jcm.asm.org/content/33/6/1660|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|language=en|volume=33|issue=6|pages=1660–1661|issn=0095-1137|pmid=7650209}}</ref>
|1995
|This study of CFS patients and healthy controls found the presence of either HHV-6A or HHV-6B DNA by PCR in 26 of 36 (44%) CFS patients and 7 of 24 (29%) controls; and found HHV-6A DNA in 8 of 36 (22%) patients and 1 of 24 (4%) controls.
|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''Prevalence of IgM antibodies to human herpesvirus 6 early antigen (p41/38) in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome'''
M Patnaik, A L Komaroff, E Conley, E A Ojo-Amaize, J B Peter<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Patnaik|first = M. | last2 = Komaroff | first2 = A.L. | last3 = Conley | first3 = E. | last4 = Ojo-Amaize | first4 = E.A. | last5 = Peter | first5 = J.B. | date = Nov 1995 | title = Prevalence of IgM antibodies to human herpesvirus 6 early antigen (p41/38) in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7594679/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=172|issue=5|pages=1364–1367|doi=10.1093/infdis/172.5.1364|issn=0022-1899|pmid=7594679}}</ref>
|1995
|Fairly large study using 2 geographically separate groups of patients to evaluate the possible association of HHV-6 infection with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). Methods involved prevalence of IgG and IgM antibodies against HHV-6 early antigen (EA), perhaps indicating active replication.

Elevated HHV-6 EA-specific IgG or IgM antibody titers were found in 119 of 154 (77%) CFS patients and 20 of 165 (12%) controls.
|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''Viral serologies in patients with chronic fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome'''

Dedra Buchwald, Rhoda L. Ashley, Tsilke Pearlman, Phalla Kith, and Anthony L. Komaroff<ref name="Buchwald1996a" />
|1996
|Large study was performed on CFS patients and healthy control subjects to compare antibodies to various viruses. HHV-6 virus antibody IgG were ≥12,800 in 39 of 295 (13%) CFS patients and 2 of 30 (7%) controls.
|-
|<big class="red">'''−'''</big>
|'''Human Herpesviruses in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome'''
Howard L. Wallace, II, Benjamin Natelson, William Gause, John Hay<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last = Wallace | first = Howard L. | last2 = Natelson | first2 = Benjamin | last3 = Gause | first3 = William | last4 = Hay | first4 = John | date = Mar 1999 | title = Human Herpesviruses in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC95690/|journal=Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology|volume=6|issue=2|pages=216–223|issn=1071-412X|pmid=10066657}}</ref>
|1999
|This study of civilian and Persian Gulf War veterans found HHV-6 DNA in the peripheral blood of 26 of 74 (35%) CFS patients and 19 of 71 (27%) controls.
|-
|<big class="red">'''−'''</big>
|'''Human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in chronic fatigue syndrome: a case-control study'''
W C Reeves, F R Stamey, J B Black, A C Mawle, J A Stewart, P E Pellett<ref name=":7" />
|2000
|Study on infection association of human herpesvirus (HHV) 6A, HHV-6B, or HHV-7 between ME/CFS patients and healthy controls. HHV-6 DNA was found in 3 of 26 (12%) patients and 15 of 50 (28%) controls.
|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''Frequent HHV-6 reactivation in multiple sclerosis (MS) and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) patients'''
D V Ablashi, H B Eastman, C B Owen, M M Roman, J Friedman, J B Zabriskie, D L Peterson, G R Pearson, J E Whitman<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Ablashi|first = D.V. | last2 = Eastman | first2 = H.B. | last3 = Owen | first3 = C.B. | last4 = Roman | first4 = M.M. | last5 = Friedman | first5 = J. | last6 = Zabriskie | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Peterson | first7 = D.L. | last8 = Pearson | first8 = G.R. | last9 = Whitman | first9 = J.E. | date = May 2000 | title = Frequent HHV-6 reactivation in multiple sclerosis (MS) and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) patients|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10738137/|journal=Journal of Clinical Virology: The Official Publication of the Pan American Society for Clinical Virology|volume=16|issue=3|pages=179–191|doi=10.1016/s1386-6532(99)00079-7|issn=1386-6532|pmid=10738137}}</ref>
|2000
|This study of 35 ME/CFS patients and 25 healthy controls found higher levels of HHV-6 Early Antigen (EA) IgM antibody in 54% of patients versus 8% of controls; and found EA IgG in 66% of patients versus 20% of controls.
|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''Multiple co-infections (Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, human herpes virus-6) in blood of chronic fatigue syndrome patients: association with signs and symptoms'''
G L Nicolson, R Gan, J Haier<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Nicolson | first = G.L. | last2 = Gan | first2 = R. | last3 = Haier | first3 = J. | date = May 2003 | title = Multiple co-infections (Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, human herpes virus-6) in blood of chronic fatigue syndrome patients: association with signs and symptoms|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12887507/|journal=APMIS: acta pathologica, microbiologica, et immunologica Scandinavica|volume=111|issue=5 | pages = 557–566|doi=10.1034/j.1600-0463.2003.1110504.x|issn=0903-4641|pmid=12887507}}</ref>
|2003
|This fairly large study used polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in an attempt to show evidence of active human herpes virus-6 (HHV-6) infections, as well as [[Mycoplasma]] and [[Chlamydophila pneumoniae|Chlamydia Pneumoniae]] infections in CFS patients. HHV-6 DNA was detected in 61 of 200 (31%) CFS patients and 9 of 100 (9%) healthy controls.

While none of the controls had co-infections, multiple co-infections found in CFS patients included multiple Mycoplasmal infections (22%), HHV-6 + Mycoplasma (16%), C. pneumoniae + Mycoplasma (4%), and C. pneumoniae + HHV-6 (2.5%).
|-
|<big class="red">'''−'''</big>
|'''Detection of Herpesviruses and Parvovirus B19 in Gastric and Intestinal Mucosa of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Patients'''
Marc Frémont, Kristine Metzger, Hamada Rady, Jan Hulstaert, Kenny De Meirleir<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal | last = Frémont | first = Marc | last2 = Metzger | first2 = Kristine | last3 = Rady | first3 = Hamada | last4 = Hulstaert | first4 = Jan | last5 = De Meirleir | first5 = Kenny | date = Mar 2009 | title = Detection of herpesviruses and parvovirus B19 in gastric and intestinal mucosa of chronic fatigue syndrome patients|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19414405/|journal=In Vivo (Athens, Greece)|volume=23|issue=2|pages=209–213|issn=0258-851X|pmid=19414405}}</ref>
|2009
|A study to investigate the presence of HHV-6, HHV-7, EBV and parvovirus B19 in the gastro-intestinal tract of CFS patients found HHV-6 stomach biopsy DNA in 15 of 48 (31%) CFS patients and 10 of 35 (29%) controls.
|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''Association of Active Human Herpesvirus-6, -7 and Parvovirus B19 Infection with Clinical Outcomes in Patients with Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome'''
Svetlana Chapenko, Angelika Krumina, Inara Logina, Santa Rasa, Maksims Chistjakovs, Alina Sultanova, Ludmila Viksna, Modra Murovska<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22927850/ | title = Association of Active Human Herpesvirus-6, -7 and Parvovirus B19 Infection with Clinical Outcomes in Patients with Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|last = Chapenko|first = Svetlana | last2 = Krumina | first2 = Angelika | date = 2012-08-13 | website = Advances in Virology|language=en|access-date=2020-08-20 | last3 = Logina | first3 = Inara | last4 = Rasa | first4 = Santa | last5 = Chistjakovs | first5 = Maksims | last6 = Sultanova | first6 = Alina | last7 = Viksna | first7 = Ludmila | last8 = Murovska | first8 = Modra | authorlink= | authorlink2 = |archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=}}</ref>
|2012
|This study of 108 ME/CFS patients and 90 healthy controls found HHV-6 DNA in plasma samples of 16 of 108 (15%) ME/CFS patients and 0 of 90 (0%) healthy controls.

Of the 16 HHV-6 positive CFS patients, 14 of 16 were co-infections with HHV-7 and/or Parvovirus B19, where only 2 of 16 were single HHV-6 infections.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindawi.com/journals/av/2012/205085/tab1/ | title = Table 1 {{!}} Association of Active Human Herpesvirus-6, -7 and Parvovirus B19 Infection with Clinical Outcomes in Patients with Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | website = hindawi.com|access-date=2020-08-20}}</ref>
|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Gulf War Illness patients exhibit increased humoral responses to the Herpesviruses-encoded dUTPase: Implications in disease pathophysiology'''
Peter Halpin, Marshall Vance Williams, Nancy G. Klimas, Mary Ann Fletcher, Zachary Barnes, Maria Eugenia Ariza<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last = Halpin | first = Peter | last2 = Williams | first2 = Marshall Vance | last3 = Klimas | first3 = Nancy G. | last4 = Fletcher | first4 = Mary Ann | last5 = Barnes | first5 = Zachary | last6 = Ariza | first6 = Maria Eugenia | date = Sep 2017 | title = Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Gulf War Illness patients exhibit increased humoral responses to the Herpesviruses-encoded dUTPase: Implications in disease pathophysiology|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5513753/|journal=Journal of medical virology|volume=89|issue=9|pages=1636–1645|doi=10.1002/jmv.24810|issn=0146-6615|pmc=5513753|pmid=28303641}}</ref>
|2017
|A study surrounding the involvement of herpesvirus as a possible trigger for ME/CFS as well as the involvement of herpesvirus in the pathophysiology of Gulf War Illness (GWI) patients. A separate set of healthy controls were used for comparison and matched to ME/CFS and GWI cases by age, gender, and race/ethnicity.

Antibodies against multiple human herpesviruses-encoded dUTPases were shown as being simultaneously produced in (30.91–52.7%) ME/CFS patients and (17.21%) of controls. HHV-6 dUTPase antibodies were present in 29 of 55 (53%) CFS patients and 45 of 151 (30%) controls.
|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''Cytomegalovirus, Epstein‐Barr virus, and human herpesvirus‐6 infections in patients with myalgic еncephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome'''
Evelina Shikova, Valentina Reshkova, Аntoniya Kumanova, Sevdalina Raleva, Dora Alexandrova, Natasa Capo, Modra Murovska<ref name=":0" />
| 2020
| Study of 58 Bulgarian ME/CFS patients and 50 healthy controls found HHV-6 DNA in the plasma of 1 of 58 (1.7%) patients vs. 0 of 50 (0%) controls.

|}

==Cytomegalovirus studies==
Cytomegalovirus is found in 58% of adults (usually in a latent state).<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Dollard | first = Sheila C. | last2 = Staras | first2 = Stephanie A.S. | last3 = Amin | first3 = Minal M. | last4 = Schmid | first4 = D. Scott | last5 = Cannon | first5 = Michael J. | date = Nov 2011 | title = National prevalence estimates for cytomegalovirus IgM and IgG avidity and association between high IgM antibody titer and low IgG avidity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21918114/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=18|issue=11|pages=1895–1899|doi=10.1128/CVI.05228-11|issn=1556-679X|pmc=3209034|pmid=21918114}}</ref> Cytomegalovirus is a rarer cause of mononucleosis.
{| class="wikitable alternance"
! scope="col" style="width: 10px;" |
! scope="col" style="width: 270px;" | Study Title
! scope="col" style="width: 32px;" | Date
! scope="col" style="Xwidth: 200px;" | Details
|-
|<big class="red">'''−'''</big>
|'''Viral serologies in patients with chronic fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome'''
Dedra Buchwald, Rhoda L. Ashley, Tsilke Pearlman, Phalla Kith, and Anthony L. Komaroff<ref name="Buchwald1996b" />
|1996
|Large study was performed on CFS patients and healthy control subjects to compare antibodies to various viruses. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) antibody IgG were > 2,048 in 9 of 285 (3%) CFS patients and 1 of 30 (3%) controls.
|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''Cytomegalovirus, Epstein‐Barr virus, and human herpesvirus‐6 infections in patients with myalgic еncephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome'''
Evelina Shikova, Valentina Reshkova, Аntoniya Kumanova, Sevdalina Raleva, Dora Alexandrova, Natasa Capo, Modra Murovska<ref name=":0" />
| 2020
| Study of 58 Bulgarian ME/CFS patients and 50 healthy controls found CMV DNA in the plasma of 2 of 58 (3.4%) patients vs. 0 of 50 (0%) controls.

|}

== Varicella zoster virus studies==
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is found in 88% of the adult population (usually in a latent state).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Fatha | first = Noorul | last2 = Ang | first2 = Li Wei | last3 = Goh | first3 = Kee Tai | date = May 2014 | title = Changing seroprevalence of varicella zoster virus infection in a tropical city state, Singapore|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24269652/|journal=International journal of infectious diseases: IJID: official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases|volume=22 | pages = 73–77|doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2013.10.003|issn=1878-3511|pmid=24269652}}</ref> It causes chickenpox and shingles.
{| class="wikitable alternance"
! scope="col" style="width: 10px;" |
! scope="col" style="width: 270px;" | Study Title
! scope="col" style="width: 32px;" | Date
! scope="col" style="Xwidth: 200px;" | Details

|-
|<big class="red">'''−'''</big>
|'''Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Gulf War Illness patients exhibit increased humoral responses to the Herpesviruses-encoded dUTPase: Implications in disease pathophysiology'''
Peter Halpin, Marshall Vance Williams, Nancy G. Klimas, Mary Ann Fletcher, Zachary Barnes, Maria Eugenia Ariza<ref name=":5" />
|2017
|A study surrounding the involvement of herpesvirus as a possible trigger for ME/CFS as well as the involvement of herpesvirus in the pathophysiology of Gulf War Illness (GWI) patients. A separate set of healthy controls were used for comparison and matched to ME/CFS and GWI cases by age, gender, and race/ethnicity.

Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) dUTPase antibodies were present in 2 of 55 (4%) CFS patients and 13 of 151 (9%) controls.

|}

== Herpes simplex virus studies==
Herpes simplex virus I is found in 54% of adults, and herpes simplex virus II in 16% of adults (usually in a latent state).<ref name="Bradley2014">{{Cite journal|last = Bradley|first = Heather | last2 = Markowitz | first2 = Lauri E. | last3 = Gibson | first3 = Theda | last4 = McQuillan | first4 = Geraldine M. | date = 2014-02-01 | title = Seroprevalence of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2--United States, 1999-2010|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24136792/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=209|issue=3 | pages = 325–333|doi=10.1093/infdis/jit458|issn=1537-6613|pmid=24136792}}</ref> HSV causes oral mouth sores.
{| class="wikitable alternance"
! scope="col" style="width: 10px;" |
! scope="col" style="width: 270px;" | Study Title
! scope="col" style="width: 32px;" | Date
! scope="col" style="Xwidth: 200px;" | Details

|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''Antibodies to Herpes Simplex Types 1 and 2 in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome'''
PA Bond & TG Dinan<ref name="Bond2006">{{Cite journal|last = Bond | first = P.A. | last2 = Dinan | first2 = T.G. | date = 2006-01-01 | title = Antibodies to Herpes Simplex Types 1 and 2 in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|url=https://doi.org/10.1300/J092v13n01_04|journal=Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|volume=13|issue=1 | pages = 35–40|doi=10.1300/J092v13n01_04|issn=1057-3321}}</ref>
| 2011
| This study of 27 ME/CFS patients and 26 healthy controls found HSV I antibodies in 74% of patients versus 42% of controls; and found HSV II antibodies in 70% of patients versus 31% of controls.

|-
|<big class="red">'''−'''</big>
|'''Antibodies to Human Herpesviruses in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Patients'''
Blomberg et al.<ref name="Blomgberg2019">{{Cite journal | title = Antibodies to Human Herpesviruses in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Patients | date = 2019 | url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2019.01946|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|issue=|pages=1946|last = Blomberg|first = Jonas | authorlink = Jonas Blomberg | last2 = Rizwan | first2 = Muhammad | authorlink2 = Muhammad Rizwan | last3 = Böhlin-Wiener | first3 = Agnes | authorlink3 = | last4 = Elfaitouri | first4 = Amal | authorlink4 = | last5 = Julin | first5 = Per | authorlink5 = | last6 = Zachrisson | first6 = Olof | authorlink6 = Olof Zachrisson | last7 = Rosén | first7 = Anders | last8 = Gottfries | first8 = Carl-Gerhard | authorlink8 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.01946|pmc=PMC6702656|pmid=31475007|access-date=|issn=1664-3224|quote=|via=}}</ref>
| 2019
| This study of patients meeting the [[Canadian Consensus Criteria]] for ME/CFS and/or the ACR 1990 criteria for [[fibromyalgia]] found that levels of antibodies to HSV-1 and HSV-2 were similar or slightly lower in ME/CFS patients and fibromyalgia patients compared to healthy blood donors.
|}

== HHV-7 studies==
HHV-7 is found in more than 95% of the adult population (usually in a latent state).<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Clark|first = D.A. | last2 = Freeland | first2 = M.L. | last3 = Mackie | first3 = L.K. | last4 = Jarrett | first4 = R.F. | last5 = Onions | first5 = D.E. | date = Jul 1993 | title = Prevalence of antibody to human herpesvirus 7 by age|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8390545/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=168|issue=1|pages=251–252|doi=10.1093/infdis/168.1.251|issn=0022-1899|pmid=8390545}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable alternance"
! scope="col" style="width: 10px;" |
! scope="col" style="width: 270px;" | Study Title
! scope="col" style="width: 32px;" | Date
! scope="col" style="Xwidth: 200px;" | Details
|-
|<big class="red">'''−'''</big>
|'''Human herpesvirus 6 and human herpesvirus 7 in chronic fatigue syndrome'''
D Di Luca, M Zorzenon, P Mirandola, R Colle, G A Botta, E Cassai<ref name=":8" />
|1995
|This study of CFS patients and healthy controls found the presence of HHV-7 DNA by PCR in 23 of 28 (82%) CFS patients and 20 of 24 (83%) controls.
|-
|<big class="red">'''−'''</big>
|'''Human Herpesviruses in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome'''
Howard L. Wallace, II, Benjamin Natelson, William Gause, John Hay<ref name=":6" />
|1999
|This study of civilian and Persian Gulf War veterans found HHV-7 DNA in the peripheral blood of 58 of 75 (77%) CFS patients and 51 of 73 (70%) controls.
|-
|<big class="red">'''−'''</big>
|'''Human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in chronic fatigue syndrome: a case-control study'''
W C Reeves, F R Stamey, J B Black, A C Mawle, J A Stewart, P E Pellett<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last = Reeves | first = W.C. | last2 = Stamey | first2 = F.R. | last3 = Black | first3 = J.B. | last4 = Mawle | first4 = A.C. | last5 = Stewart | first5 = J.A. |last6 = Pellett | first6 = P.E. | date = Jul 2000 | title = Human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in chronic fatigue syndrome: a case-control study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10913395/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=31|issue=1 | pages = 48–52|doi=10.1086/313908|issn=1058-4838|pmid=10913395}}</ref>
|2000
|Study on infection association of human herpesvirus (HHV) 6A, HHV-6B, or HHV-7 between ME/CFS patients and healthy controls. HHV-7 DNA was found in 2 of 26 (8%) patients and 12 of 50 (25%) controls.
|-
|<big class="red">'''−'''</big>
|'''Detection of Herpesviruses and Parvovirus B19 in Gastric and Intestinal Mucosa of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Patients'''
Marc Frémont, Kristine Metzger, Hamada Rady, Jan Hulstaert, Kenny De Meirleir<ref name=":2" />
|2009
|A study to investigate the presence of HHV-6, HHV-7, EBV and parvovirus B19 in the gastro-intestinal tract of CFS patients found HHV-7 stomach biopsy DNA in 44 of 48 (92%) CFS patients and 29 of 35 (83%) controls.
|-
|<big class="green">'''+'''</big>
|'''Association of Active Human Herpesvirus-6, -7 and Parvovirus B19 Infection with Clinical Outcomes in Patients with Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome'''
Svetlana Chapenko, Angelika Krumina, Inara Logina, Santa Rasa, Maksims Chistjakovs, Alina Sultanova, Ludmila Viksna, Modra Murovska<ref name=":3" />
|2012
|This study of 108 ME/CFS patients and 90 healthy controls found HHV-7 DNA in plasma samples of 57 of 108 (53%) ME/CFS patients and 10 of 90 (11%) healthy controls.

Of the 57 HHV-7 positive CFS patients, 29 of 57 were co-infections with HHV-6 and/or Parvovirus B19, where only 28 of 57 were single HHV-7 infections.<ref name=":4" />
|}

== See also ==
* [[Cytomegalovirus]]
* [[Epstein-Barr virus]]
* [[Herpes simplex virus]]
* [[Human herpesvirus 6]]
* [[Human herpesvirus 7]]
* [[List of enterovirus infection studies]]
* [[Varicella zoster virus]]
* [[Abortive infection theory of ME/CFS]] (Dr Lerner's theory that abortive herpesviruses cause ME/CFS)

== Learn more ==
* [https://hhv-6foundation.org HHV-6 Foundation]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Lists]]
[[Category:Virology]]

List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

2025-07-02T01:27:30Z

Hip:Added new section

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogenic microbes. By this we mean that certain microbes are found in the bodies of patients with the disease much more frequently than in the bodies of healthy people.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Preface|language=en | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/ | date = 2004|publisher=National Academies Press (US) | last = Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats | last2 = Knobler | first2 = Stacey L. | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Siobhán | last4 = Lemon | first4 = Stanley M. | last5 = Najafi | first5 = Marjan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = O'Connor | first = Siobhán M. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Christopher E. | last3 = Hughes | first3 = James M. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16836820/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1051–1057|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> When a microbe such as a [[virus]], [[bacteria|bacterium]], [[fungus]] or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether that microbe might be the cause of the disease, or might in part be causing the disease in conjunction with other causal factors. There are several possible explanations for why a microbe may be associated with a disease:
* The microbe is an "innocent bystander", playing no causal role in the disease, but for some reason, the microbe is more prevalent in the diseased organs in patients with the illness, perhaps because the immune response is compromised in these diseased organs.
* The microbe causes the disease in tandem with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposures).
* The microbe is a singular cause of the disease.
Generally the idea that persistent microbial infections living the tissues and cells of the body might be the underlying cause of many chronic diseases and cancers has not gained widespread acceptance in the medical science community; however, more and more studies are finding microbial links to chronic illnesses.

==Pathogenic microbes as a cause of chronic diseases and cancers==
Two prominent advocates of the theory that microbes are the cause of numerous chronic diseases and cancers are evolutionary biologist [[wikipedia:Paul_W._Ewald|Professor Paul W. Ewald]], and physicist and anthropologist [[wikipedia:Gregory_Cochran|Dr Gregory Cochran]]. They posit that many chronic diseases and cancers whose etiology is currently unknown will, in the future, likely turn out to be caused by damaging effects from chronic microbial infections living in the body's tissues and cells.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=|title=Plague time: the new germ theory of disease|publisher=Anchor Books|date=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|first=Paul W.|last=Ewald|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease}}</ref><ref name="InfectiousCausation">{{Cite journal|title=Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective|date=2000|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10893730/|journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine|volume=43|issue=3|pages=406–448|last=Cochran|first=G.M.|last2=Ewald|first2=P.W.|last3=Cochran|first3=K.D.|doi=10.1353/pbm.2000.0016|pmid=10893730|issn=0031-5982}}</ref> This viewpoint sharply contrasts with traditional notions of disease etiology, that defective genes, diet, and lifestyle factors underpin disease.

Professor Ewald supports his thesis that germs, not genes, are the primary cause of illnesses with an argument from evolutionary biology: he explains that any faulty genes that cause disease and thus reduce survival and procreation will be rapidly eliminated from the gene pool within a few generations by means of evolutionary natural selection.<ref name="PlagueTime">{{Cite book|title=Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|language=en|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|last=Ewald|first=Paul W.|pages=56}}</ref> Faulty genes are therefore self-extinguishing, and because evolution filters out defective genes so effectively, one would not expect many diseases to result from genetic faults.

Professor Ewald points out that the only faulty genes that are likely to persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, he says the genes that encode for sickle cell disease are maintained and persist down the generations because although these genes are bad, they also protect against malaria, which is a compensating advantage.

Scientists once believed that defective genes would largely explain how most chronic diseases and cancers arise. This belief in part motivated the multi-billion investment in the Human Genome Project, the enterprise to map out all human genes and the entire human genome. But once the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, it soon became apparent that genes do not play a major role in the development of most diseases and cancers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/apr/17/human-genome-genetics-twin-studies|title=The failure of the genome|last=Latham|first=Jonathan|date=2011-04-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> One large meta-analysis found that for the vast majority of chronic diseases, the genetic contribution to the risk of developing the disease is only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191219142739.htm|title=Your DNA is not your destiny -- or a good predictor of your health|date=December 19, 2019|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pafron2019">{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk|date=2019|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31805043/|journal=PloS One|volume=14|issue=12|pages=e0220215|last=Patron|first=Jonas|last2=Serra-Cayuela|first2=Arnau|last3=Han|first3=Beomsoo|last4=Li|first4=Carin|last5=Wishart|first5=David Scott|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220215|pmc=6894795|pmid=31805043|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

Thus the Human Genome Project failed to live up to its hype, and failed to uncover the underlying causes of chronic diseases and cancers. But thanks to this project, we now know genetic factors are not major players in the triggering of disease. So if defective genes cannot explain how chronic diseases and cancers arise, we have to examine other possible causal factors that may be driving disease. When we look at the list of possible causal factors that might underpin disease, that list is short, it consists of: environmental toxins, radiations, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet, and lifestyle factors. There are not many options in that list, which thus brings renewed focus on the idea that infectious agents may be the key players in the development of disease.

Other researchers with an interest in the idea that infectious microbes may be the hidden cause of many chronic diseases and cancers include: Dr Hanan Polansky,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Latent viruses can cause disease by disrupting the competition for the limiting factor p300/CBP|date=2018 Nov 26|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6260892/|journal=Cellular & Molecular Biology Letters|volume=23|pages=56|last=Polansky|first=Hanan|last2=Schwab|first2=Hava|language=en|doi=10.1186/s11658-018-0121-1|pmc=6260892|pmid=30505323}}</ref> Prof Siobhán M. O'Connor,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases - Volume 12, Number 7—July 2006 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/7/06-0037_article|last=O'Connor|first=Siobhán M.|last2=Taylor|first2=Christopher E.|last3=Hughes|first3=James M.|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> Prof Steven S. Coughlin,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases|date=2012 Dec 9|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175921/|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=34|pages=7|last=Coughlin|first=Steven S.|language=en|doi=10.1007/BF03391675|pmc=4175921|pmid=25264396}}</ref> Prof Timothy J. Henrich,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Overview of Infection- Associated Chronic Illnesses|date=2024-04-03|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK602972/|last=National Academies of Sciences|first=Engineering|last2=Division|first2=Health and Medicine|last3=Policy|first3=Board on Health Sciences|last4=Health|first4=Board on Global|last5=Disorders|first5=Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System|last6=Threats|first6=Forum on Microbial|last7=Snair|first7=Megan|last8=Liao|first8=Julie|last9=Ashby|first9=Elizabeth|last10=Biffl|first10=Claire|language=en|publisher=National Academies Press (US)}}</ref> and Prof Wendy Bjerke.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings|date=2011-01-01|url=https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/pthms_fac/2|journal=All PTHMS Faculty Publications|volume=5|issue=1|last=Bjerke|first=Wendy|doi=10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.05}}</ref>

Note, however, that more than one causal factor may be involved in the onset and development of a chronic disease or cancer: an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are simultaneously present. An example of this arises in a mouse model of Crohn's disease, an illness that can be precipitated by a norovirus infection of the intestinal tissues, but only when both a specific gene variant is present, and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine|date=2010-06-25|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997/|journal=Cell|volume=141|issue=7|pages=1135–1145|last=Cadwell|first=Ken|last2=Patel|first2=Khushbu K.|last3=Maloney|first3=Nicole S.|last4=Liu|first4=Ta-Chiang|last5=Ng|first5=Aylwin C.Y.|last6=Storer|first6=Chad E.|last7=Head|first7=Richard D.|last8=Xavier|first8=Ramnik|last9=Stappenbeck|first9=Thaddeus S.|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009|pmc=2908380|pmid=20602997|issn=1097-4172}}</ref> Thus although a microbe may be the primary factor in the onset of diease, its ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon other causal factors.

Microbe-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.<ref name="Kockaya2010">{{Cite journal|title=What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures|date=2010-10-26|url=http://www.scirp.org/Journal/Paperabs.aspx?paperid=2817|journal=Health|volume=2|issue=10|pages=1174–1178|last=Kockaya|first=Guvenc|last2=Wertheimer|first2=Albert|language=en|doi=10.4236/health.2010.210172}}</ref> About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/default/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf|title=Almanac of Chronic Disease|last=Carmona|first=Richard H.|authorlink=|date=2009|website=|publisher=Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|at=Forward|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens==
In the following list of diseases linked to infectious microbes, there is a good possibility that the microbes might be causing the disease, but further research is needed to work out whether these microbes do play a causal role.

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to microbes, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of microbe-associated illnesses.
{| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0"
| style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''Microbes Linked to the Disease'''
|-
| '''Alzheimer's disease'''
| Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>, [[Helicobacter pylori]]<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and Fusobacterium nucleatum.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Periodontal Pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum Exacerbates Alzheimer’s Pathogenesis via Specific Pathways|date=2022 Jun 23|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9260256/|journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience|volume=14|pages=912709|last=Wu|first=Hongle|last2=Qiu|first2=Wei|last3=Zhu|first3=Xiaofang|last4=Li|first4=Xiangfen|last5=Xie|first5=Zhongcong|last6=Carreras|first6=Isabel|last7=Dedeoglu|first7=Alpaslan|last8=Dyke|first8=Thomas Van|last9=Han|first9=Yiping W.|last10=Karimbux|first10=Nadeem|last11=Tu|first11=Qisheng|language=en|doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.912709|pmc=9260256|pmid=35813949}}</ref> Alzheimer's is associated with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref>
Alzheimer's is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1 in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref> Alzheimer's has been linked to [[cytomegalovirus]] infection of the brain, which may enter the brain by travelling along the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alzheimer's disease-associated CD83(+) microglia are linked with increased immunoglobulin G4 and human cytomegalovirus in the gut, vagal nerve, and brain|date=2024-12-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39698934/|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association|last=Readhead|first=Benjamin P.|last2=Mastroeni|first2=Diego F.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi|last4=Sierra|first4=Maria A.|last5=de Ávila|first5=Camila|last6=Jimoh|first6=Tajudeen O.|last7=Haure-Mirande|first7=Jean-Vianney|last8=Atanasoff|first8=Kristina E.|last9=Nolz|first9=Jennifer|last10=Suazo|first10=Crystal|last11=Barton|first11=Nathaniel J.|doi=10.1002/alz.14401|pmid=39698934|issn=1552-5279}}</ref> The viruses [[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal|title=Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|date=Dec 2015|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|last=Pisa|first=Diana|authorlink=|last2=Alonso|first2=Ruth|authorlink2=|last3=Rábano|first3=Alberto|authorlink3=|last4=Rodal|first4=Izaskun|authorlink4=|last5=Carrasco|first5=Luis|authorlink5=|language=en|doi=10.1038/srep15015|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|issn=2045-2322|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]'''
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with retrovirus<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
|-
| '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]'''
| Infection with borrelia species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa.<ref name="pmid7943444" /> In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[Streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. Adolescent girls who had hospital-treated infections, or had less severe infections treated with anti-infective agents, were found to be at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Exposure to Infections in Childhood With Risk of Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls|date=2019 Apr 24|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6487907/|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=76|issue=8|pages=800|last=Breithaupt|first=Lauren|last2=Köhler-Forsberg|first2=Ole|last3=Larsen|first3=Janne Tidselbak|last4=Benros|first4=Michael E.|last5=Thornton|first5=Laura Marie|last6=Bulik|first6=Cynthia M.|last7=Petersen|first7=Liselotte|language=en|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0297|pmc=6487907|pmid=31017632}}</ref> [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" />
|-
| '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]'''
| Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Helicobacter pylori Infection with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|date=10 July 2024|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/9247586|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|last=Li|first=L|last2=Ren|first2=Y|doi=10.1155/2024/9247586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Helicobacter pylori infection association with anxiety in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms in Hadhramout|url=https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/helicobacter-pylori-infection-association-with-anxiety-in-patients-with-upper-gastrointestinal-symptoms-in-hadhramout-27168.html|journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Digestive Diseases|volume=8|issue=5|pages=daakeek|last=Ahmed M.|last2=Musiaan|first2=Nabeel S.|last3=Al-Zaazaai|first3=Ahmed}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Infection with Toxoplasma gondii increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study|date=2020 Jul 30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10317747/|journal=Parasitology|volume=147|issue=13|pages=1577|last=Lin|first=Hsin-An|last2=Chien|first2=Wu-Chien|last3=Huang|first3=Kuo-Yang|last4=Chung|first4=Chi-Hsiang|last5=Chen|first5=Lih-Chyang|last6=Lin|first6=Hsin-Chung|last7=Guo|first7=Jong-Long|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0031182020001183|pmc=10317747|pmid=32729456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Population-based cohort study of Toxoplasma gondii P22 antibody positivity correlation with anxiety|date=2024-08-15|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38729222/|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=359|pages=41–48|last=Yang|first=Lili|last2=Wang|first2=Biyun|last3=Wu|first3=Shuizhen|last4=Yang|first4=Zihan|last5=Xin|first5=Zixuan|last6=Zheng|first6=Shuyu|last7=Zou|first7=Weihao|last8=Zhang|first8=Chi|last9=Chen|first9=Jiating|last10=Peng|first10=Hongjuan|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.043|pmid=38729222|issn=1573-2517}}</ref> and associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Asthma]]'''
| Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref>
|-
| '''Atherosclerosis'''
| Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> Atherosclerosis is linked to the bacteria Helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref>
|-
| '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder'''
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[Streptococcus]], and with the viruses HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].
Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref>
|-
| '''Autism'''
| Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s'''
| Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases are linked to the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref>
|-
| '''Bipolar disorder'''
| Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Cancer]]'''
|Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to microbial causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the microbes currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some microbes proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to microbes that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

* '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref>
* '''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref>
* '''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by Schistosoma helminths.<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref>
* '''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref>
* '''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref>
* '''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref>
* '''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[Helicobacter pylori]], Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref>
* '''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref>
* '''Hodgkin's lymphoma''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref>
* '''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
* '''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref>
* '''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref>
* '''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
* '''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
* '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref>
* '''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
* '''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref>
* '''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.
* '''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with mumps virus.<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref>
* '''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref>
* '''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref>
* '''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref>
* '''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref>
* '''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref>
* '''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]'''
|Myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is primarily associated with two [[enterovirus]]es, namely [[Coxsackie B virus]] and [[echovirus]] (for references see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]); with three [[herpesviruses]], namely [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[cytomegalovirus]] and [[human herpesvirus 6]] (for references see [[list of herpesvirus infection studies]]); and with [[SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref>
More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6:58|access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after Giardia enteritis: clinical characteristics, disability and long-term sickness absence|date=2012-02-08|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22316329/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=12|pages=13|last=Naess|first=Halvor|last2=Nyland|first2=Morten|last3=Hausken|first3=Trygve|last4=Follestad|first4=Inghild|last5=Nyland|first5=Harald I.|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-12-13|pmc=3292445|pmid=22316329|issn=1471-230X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome 5 years after giardiasis: differential diagnoses, characteristics and natural course|date=2013-02-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399438/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=13|pages=28|last=Mørch|first=Kristine|last2=Hanevik|first2=Kurt|last3=Rivenes|first3=Ann C.|last4=Bødtker|first4=Jørn E.|last5=Næss|first5=Halvor|last6=Stubhaug|first6=Bjarte|last7=Wensaas|first7=Knut-Arne|last8=Rortveit|first8=Guri|last9=Eide|first9=Geir E.|last10=Hausken|first10=Trygve|last11=Langeland|first11=Nina|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-13-28|pmc=3598369|pmid=23399438|issn=1471-230X}}</ref> [[Ross River virus]] <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Changing epidemiology of Ross River virus disease in South Australia|date=1996-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8862330/|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=165|issue=6|pages=313–317|last=Selden|first=S. M.|last2=Cameron|first2=A. S.|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124989.x|pmid=8862330|issn=0025-729X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study|date=2006-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16950834/|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=333|issue=7568|pages=575|last=Hickie|first=Ian|last2=Davenport|first2=Tracey|last3=Wakefield|first3=Denis|last4=Vollmer-Conna|first4=Ute|last5=Cameron|first5=Barbara|last6=Vernon|first6=Suzanne D.|last7=Reeves|first7=William C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Andrew|last9=Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group|doi=10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE|pmc=1569956|pmid=16950834|issn=1756-1833}}</ref> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evaluation of Prolonged Fatigue Post–West Nile Virus Infection and Association of Fatigue with Elevated Antiviral and Proinflammatory Cytokines|date=2014-09-01|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4150370/|journal=Viral Immunology|volume=27|issue=7|pages=327–333|last=Garcia|first=Melissa N.|last2=Hause|first2=Anne M.|last3=Walker|first3=Christopher M.|last4=Orange|first4=Jordan S.|last5=Hasbun|first5=Rodrigo|last6=Murray|first6=Kristy O.|doi=10.1089/vim.2014.0035|pmc=4150370|pmid=25062274|issn=0882-8245}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic myocarditis'''
|Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease'''
|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Crohn's disease]]'''
|Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus Candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]] and Serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref> Crohn's disease development has been linked to commensal yeast Candida albicans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An immunological link between Candida albicans colonization and Crohn's disease|date=2015-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23855357/|journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology|volume=41|issue=2|pages=135–139|last=Gerard|first=Romain|last2=Sendid|first2=Boualem|last3=Colombel|first3=Jean-Frederic|last4=Poulain|first4=Daniel|last5=Jouault|first5=Thierry|doi=10.3109/1040841X.2013.810587|pmid=23855357|issn=1549-7828}}</ref> One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref> Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref> In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when all three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
|-
|'''Coronary heart disease'''
|Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dementia'''
|Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444" />
|-
|'''[[Depression]]'''
|Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> Depression is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and psychiatric disorders: a cross-sectional study in China|date=2022 Sep 5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9445102/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=15092|last=Liu|first=Taixiu|last2=Gao|first2=Peng|last3=Bu|first3=Deyun|last4=Liu|first4=Dong|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-16420-y|pmc=9445102|pmid=36064811}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref>

* '''[[depression|Major depressive disorder]]''' is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> as well as [[Bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal | last = Schaller | first = James L. | last2 = Burkland | first2 = Glenn A. | last3 = Langhoff | first3 = P.J. | date = 2007-09-13 | title = Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3 | pages = 54|issn=1531-0132|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060}}</ref> and [[Borrelia]]<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
* '''Seasonal affective disorder''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]'''
|Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[Coxsackie B virus]] can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms.<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref>
Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref>

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family.
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]'''
|Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus.<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from a Staphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dilated cardiomyopathy'''
|Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref>
|-
|'''Epilepsy'''
|Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) infection of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]'''
|Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref>
|-
|'''[[Hypertension]]'''
|Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref>
|-
|'''Infertility'''
|Infertility is linked to an endometrium infection with [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus variant A (HHV-6A).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Interstitial cystitis]]'''
|The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomaviruses, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> and treatment with the EBV antiviral valacyclovir results in clinical improvement in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary Viral Spectrum in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome and the Clinical Efficacy of Valacyclovir Treatment|date=2024-02-26|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38540138/|journal=Biomedicines|volume=12|issue=3|pages=522|last=Kuo|first=Hann-Chorng|last2=Peng|first2=Chih-Wen|last3=Jiang|first3=Yuan-Hong|last4=Jhang|first4=Jia-Fong|doi=10.3390/biomedicines12030522|pmc=10967905|pmid=38540138|issn=2227-9059}}</ref>
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|'''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]'''
|Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> IBS is linked to protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> IBS in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Lower back pain]]'''
|Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]'''
|Systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with the viruses [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal | last = James | first = Judith A. | last2 = Harley | first2 = John B. | last3 = Scofield | first3 = R. Hal | date = Sep 2006 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5 | pages = 462–467|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|issn=1040-8711|pmid=16896283}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref>
|-
|'''Macular degeneration'''
|Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high cytomegalovirus antibody titers.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Metabolic syndrome]]'''
|Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and Helicobacter pylori. It is also linked to the viruses cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'''
|Multiple sclerosis is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus.<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> One study found EBV in the brain tissues of most ME patients.<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2|pages=e0192109|last=Hassani|first=Asma|last2=Corboy|first2=John R.|last3=Al-Salam|first3=Suhail|last4=Khan|first4=Gulfaraz|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> A landmark 2022 longitudinal study provided strong evidence that EBV is the leading cause of multiple sclerosis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Longitudinal analysis reveals high prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus associated with multiple sclerosis|date=2022-01-21|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35025605/|journal=Science|volume=375|issue=6578|pages=296–301|last=Bjornevik|first=Kjetil|last2=Cortese|first2=Marianna|last3=Healy|first3=Brian C.|last4=Kuhle|first4=Jens|last5=Mina|first5=Michael J.|last6=Leng|first6=Yumei|last7=Elledge|first7=Stephen J.|last8=Niebuhr|first8=David W.|last9=Scher|first9=Ann I.|last10=Munger|first10=Kassandra L.|last11=Ascherio|first11=Alberto|language=en|doi=10.1126/science.abj8222|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Multiple sclerosis is also linked to [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref>
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|'''Myocardial infarction'''
|Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of a sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref>
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|'''Myopia'''
|Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough) and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref>
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|'''[[Obesity]]'''
|Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Adenovirus 36 prevalence and association with human obesity: a systematic review|date=2021-03-22|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41366-021-00805-6|journal=International Journal of Obesity|volume=45|issue=6|pages=1342–1356|last=da Silva Fernandes|first=Jaime|last2=Schuelter-Trevisol|first2=Fabiana|last3=Cancelier|first3=Ana Carolina Lobor|last4=Gonçalves e Silva|first4=Helena Caetano|last5=de Sousa|first5=Daiana Gomes|last6=Atkinson|first6=Richard L.|last7=Trevisol|first7=Daisson José|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41366-021-00805-6|issn=0307-0565}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36, adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37 will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> It is known that adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref> Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref>
Obesity is associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium, [[Staphylococcus]], [[Streptococcus]], and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref>
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'''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]'''
|Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with Streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
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'''[[Panic disorder]]'''
|Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" />
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'''[[Parkinson's disease]]'''
|Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]],<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7|pages=302|last=Dourmashkin|first=Robert R.|last2=McCall|first2=Sherman A.|last3=Dourmashkin|first3=Neil|last4=Hannah|first4=Matthew J.|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977|issn=2046-1402}}</ref> Ljungan virus (from the picornavirus family),<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> and [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus.<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> Parkinson's is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref>
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'''Psoriasis'''
|Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref>
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'''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]'''
|Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and Proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[Borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref>
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'''[[Sarcoidosis]]'''
|Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref>
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'''Schizophrenia'''
|Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]].<ref name="pmid12857781" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name=":1" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> Borrelia,<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella henselae (the cause of cat scratch disease).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref>
One study found that a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found influenza virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk that the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref>

Individuals experiencing acute psychosis are nearly 11 times more likely to have a urinary tract infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary tract infections in acute psychosis|date=2014-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24499998/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=75|issue=4|pages=379–385|last=Graham|first=Krystle L.|last2=Carson|first2=Chelsea M.|last3=Ezeoke|first3=Amaka|last4=Buckley|first4=Peter F.|last5=Miller|first5=Brian J.|doi=10.4088/JCP.13m08469|pmid=24499998|issn=1555-2101}}</ref>
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'''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]'''
|Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the enterovirus [[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref>
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'''Stroke'''
|Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[Helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> Mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> Stroke is linked to [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus Histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref>
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'''Tourette syndrome'''
|Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[Streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref>
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|'''Valvular heart disease'''
|Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissues.
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'''Vasculitis'''
|Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.
|}

==How persistent microbes in the body may give rise to a disease==
Persistent microbes residing in the body can cause damage or dysfunction by numerous means:

* Microbes can infect and destroy host cells
* Microbes may secrete toxins, enzymes or metabolic by-products that damage host tissues or disrupt physiological processes
* Microbes may modify host gene expression
* Microbes may promote genetic mutations that lead to tumour development
* Microbes may induce a host immune response against them, causing collateral damage to the tissues
* Microbes may trigger autoimmunity leading to inflammatory damage to the body
* Microbial immune evasion tactics may lead to immune dysfunction (to aid their survival, all microbes living in the body engage in immune evasion, which involves the microbe synthesising immunomodulating proteins that thwart or disrupt immune system functioning)

==Difficulties in determining whether a pathogenic microbe might be causing a disease==
Determining whether a pathogenic microbe plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:
*The time between contracting the infectious microbe and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
*An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
*An infectious microbe may not cause its associated disease in every person.
*Only specific strains of a microbe may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).<ref name="Mechelli2015">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref>
*A given disease may be precipitated by more than one microbe.
*A microbe may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
*A microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
*Some microbes are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect microbes to a disease.
*For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
*A microbe may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the microbe.
In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large body of published studies demonstrating these associations.

==Notable studies==
*2000, [https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2000.0016 Infectious Causation of Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective] - Gregory Cochran, Paul W. Ewald ''et al''
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83689/ The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary] - Forum on Microbial Threats
*2004, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128097/ Virus-induced neurobehavioral disorders: mechanisms and implications] - Keizo Tomonaga
*2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011700/ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/eid/vol4no3/adobe/cassell.pdf Infectious Causes of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer] - Gail H. Cassell
*2006, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291059/ Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases] - Siobhán M O'Connor ''et al''
*2006, [[pmc:1479565/|The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers: it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human micro ecology and the nature of chronic disease]] - Caroline Hadley
*2008, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioral-psychiatric-au Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2010, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioural-psychiatric-a Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2011, [https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=jsbhs The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings] - Wendy Bjerke
*2012, [https://mpkb.org/home/pathogenesis/evidence_bacteria Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens] - Autoimmunity Research Foundation
*2012, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS407997/ Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases] - Steven S Coughlin
*2013, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23935899/ Causal Inference Regarding Infectious Aetiology of Chronic Conditions: A Systematic Review] - Sofia Orrskog ''et al''
*2023, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779437/ Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future] - Robert C Bransfield ''et al''
*2024, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349683/ Viral infections in etiology of mental disorders: a broad analysis of cytokine profile similarities – a narrative review] - Piotr Lorkiewicz ''et al''

==Articles and blogs==
*1999, [https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/0223102a.html Do Germs Cause Cancer?] - Forbes
*1999 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/a-new-germ-theory/377430/ A New Germ Theory] - The Atlantic Monthly Magazine
*1999, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199907/the-infection-connection The Infection Connection] - Psychology Today
*2005, [https://www.alzforum.org/webinars/pathogen-hypothesis-challenging-primacy-genetics-late-onset-alzheimer-disease?liveID=36 Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease] - Alzheimer Research Forum
*2008, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080522155752.htm The Emerging Role Of Infection In Alzheimer's Disease] - Science Daily
*2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230530004102/https://microbeminded.com/2017/11/11/interview-with-evolutionary-biologist-paul-ewald-infection-and-chronic-disease/ Interview With Evolutionary Biologist Paul Ewald] - Amy Proal
*2008, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infected-with-insanity/ Infected with Insanity: Could Microbes Cause Mental Illness?] - Scientific American
*2009, [https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-big-idea-that-might-beat-cancer-and-cut-health-care-costs-by-80-percent The Big Idea That Might Beat Cancer and Cut Health-Care Costs by 80 Percent] - Discover Magazine
*2010, [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/crohns-disease-triggers-may-include-viruses-other-factors Crohn’s Disease Triggers May Include Viruses and Other Factors] - National Institutes of Health
*2012, [https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-an-infection-suddenly-cause-ocd-201202274417 Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?] - Harvard Health Blog
*2012, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-perfectionists-handbook/201202/can-infections-result-in-mental-illness Can Infections Result in Mental Illness?] - Psychology Today
*2013, [https://www.medicaldaily.com/people-hospitalized-infections-are-62-more-likely-develop-mood-disorder-246876 People Hospitalized For Infections Are 62% More Likely To Develop A Mood Disorder] - Medical Daily
*2014, [https://www.livescience.com/43356-chronic-infections-cognitive-decline.html Chronic Infections Linked with Memory Problems Later in Life] - Live Science
*2015, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/05/150521095016.htm Infections can affect your IQ] - Science Daily
*2016, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q9zAG92V9M Toward a Unified, Evolutionary Theory of Cancer] - Paul Ewald: video on the infectious causes of cancer
*2019, [https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/psychiatric-disorders-are-infectious-agents-blame Psychiatric Disorders: Are Infectious Agents to Blame?] - Psychiatric Times
*2023, [https://www.mdedge.com/rheumatology/article/264214/long-covid/infection-related-chronic-illness-new-paradigm-research-and/page/0/1 Infection-related chronic illness: A new paradigm for research and treatment] - MDedge
*2023, [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/22/health/viral-infections-autoimmune-covid.html How Viral Infections Cause Long-Term Health Problems] - New York Tines

==Books==
*2002, [https://www.amazon.com/Plague-Time-Germ-Theory-Disease/dp/0385721846 Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease] - Paul W. Ewald
*2003, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714733_Microcompetition_with_Foreign_DNA_and_the_Origin_of_Chronic_Disease Microcompetition With Foreign DNA And the Origin of Chronic Disease] - Hanan Polansky
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561283/ Microbial Triggers of Chronic Human Illness] - American Society for Microbiology
*2006, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Potbelly-Syndrome-Obesity-Diabetes-Disease/dp/159120058X Potbelly Syndrome: How Common Germs Lead to Obesity, Diabetes and Heart Disease] - Russel Farris and Per Marin
*2008, [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5996250-stealth-germs-in-your-body Stealth Germs in Your Body] - Erno Daniel

==See also==
*[[Virus]]
*[[Pathogen]]s
*[[:Category:Triggers and risk factors|Triggers and risk factors (category)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Lists]]

Staphylococcus vaccine

2025-06-15T22:09:36Z

Hip:Added detailed about the Russian Staphylococcus vaccine

The treatment of myalgic encephalomyelitis /chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) using regular monthly injections of a Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine called Staphypan® was discovered by Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries in the early 1960s. At the beginning of his career as a psychiatrist in Sweden, Prof Gottfries was hit with ME/CFS after he caught the Asian flu H2N2 virus during the 1957 flu pandemic. Due to his ongoing fatigue, he suspected he might have a persistent infection, and he started self experimenting with various bacterial vaccines, as these were used to treat bacterial infections in those days before the advent of antibiotics.

By chance Prof Gottfries discovered that the Staphypan Staphylococcus vaccine ameliorated his ME/CFS symptoms, making his fatigue symptoms disappear. But he found that he had to inject this vaccine monthly in order to keep his symptoms suppressed.

Soon, Prof Gottfries started using this vaccine to successfully treat other ME/CFS patients who he saw at the psychiatric unit where he worked. However, the head physician at the psychiatric unit did not like ME/CFS patients coming to the clinic, and asked Prof Gottfries to stop seeing these patients. So Prof Gottfries had to stop treating ME/CFS, but he kept taking the vaccine himself to keep his ME/CFS at bay. Decades later, as Prof Gottfries approached retirement, he felt he should do some research on this vaccine, and so in 1998 he set up up an ME/CFS clinic called the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200525041507/http://www.gottfriesclinic.se/in-english/gottfries-clinic/ Gottfries Clinic] in Sweden with the purpose of treating patients with the Staphypan vaccine, as well as conducting research on the vaccine. The research included two double-blinded clinical trials on Staphypan to treat patients with both ME/CFS and fibromyalgia, which demonstrated that the vaccine was an effective treatment.

Unfortunately in 2005, Berna Biotech, the manufacturer of Staphypan, discontinued this vaccine. Berna Biotech were obliged to update the old artisanal process of manufacturing Staphypan to comply with good manufacturing practice (GMP) regulations. But in spite of some efforts, Berna Biotech realised that it was technically impossible to update the process to comply with GMP. So reluctantly they had to cease production of Staphypan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCF_RYCnHW4|title=Interview with Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries, Part 1: Background and Vaccine|last=Nilsson|first=Erik|date=30 September 2014|website=YouTube}}</ref>

Another Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine made by Russian pharmaceutical company Medgamal (the product [https://medgamal.ru/products/anatoxin-stafilokokkoviy-ochischenniy-adsopbipovanniy/ Staphylococcal Anatoxin Purified Adsorbed]) is being used by some ME/CFS patients (see [https://forums.phoenixrising.me/threads/one-of-the-most-effective-me-cfs-treatments-the-staphylococcus-toxoid-vaccine-discontinued-in-2005-is-available-once-again-from-a-new-source.93215/ here]), but it does not contain exactly the same antigens as Staphypan. However, the 2004 Zachrisson study<ref name=":0" /> indicated that the Staphypan antigen most closely tied to the clinical benefit is alpha toxoid, and alpha toxoid is contained in the Russian vaccine. Prof Gottfries tried the Russian vaccine, and found it worked, but was less effective than Staphypan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.healthrising.org/blog/2023/03/30/adam-bcg-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-recovery/|title=Adam's BCG Vaccination Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) Recovery Story - Health Rising|last=Johnson|first=Cort|date=2023-03-30|work=Health Rising|access-date=2025-06-15|language=en-US}}</ref>

===== Gottfries studies on the Staphypan treatment for ME/CFS =====
The '''1998 clinical trial''' on 28 female patients with both ME/CFS and fibromyalgia found 50% of patients were able to resume half-time or full-time work as a result of the vaccine treatment. The study noted that the vaccine treatment continued to work for these patients after 2 to 6 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Effects of staphylococcus toxoid vaccine on pain and fatigue in patients with fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome|date=1998-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10700309/|journal=European Journal of Pain|volume=2|issue=2|pages=133–142|last=Andersson|first=M.|last2=Bagby|first2=J.R.|last3=Dyrehag|first3=L.‐E.|last4=Gottfries|first4=C.‐G.|language=en|doi=10.1016/s1090-3801(98)90006-4|issn=1090-3801}}</ref>

The '''2002 clinical trial''' on 100 female patients with both ME/CFS and fibromyalgia, it was found 65% of patients responding favourably to the Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine, with 33% of obtaining a 50% reduction in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Treatment with staphylococcus toxoid in fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome—a randomised controlled trial|date=2002-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12413434/|journal=European Journal of Pain|volume=6|issue=6|pages=455–466|last=Zachrisson|first=Olof|last2=Regland|first2=Björn|last3=Jahreskog|first3=Marianne|last4=Jonsson|first4=Michael|last5=Kron|first5=Margareta|last6=Gottfries|first6=Carl‐Gerhard|language=en|doi=10.1016/s1090-3801(02)00044-7|issn=1090-3801}}</ref>

The '''2004 study''' looked at the long-term outcome of the Staphylococcus vaccine treatment for ME/CFS. It noted a high level of safety over 5 years of continuous use of the vaccine. The study points out the beneficial effects of the vaccine last 3 to 4 weeks before re-injection is required.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Long-Term Treatment with a Staphylococcus Toxoid Vaccine in Patients with Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|date=2006|url=https://doi.org/10.1300/J092v13n04_04|journal=Journal Of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|volume=13|issue=4|pages=29–40}}</ref>

The '''2004 Zachrisson study''' examined the antibodies in the blood generated by the Staphypan vaccine. The vaccine induced IgG antibodies to several Staphylococcus toxins and cell wall components. The strongest IgG antibody response was directed at Staphylococcus alpha toxin, and to a lesser extent, lipase. A correlation was observed between the strength of the antibody response to alpha toxin and lipase, and the degree of clinical improvement in the patients. The study found that the main antigenic components of Staphypan are: alpha toxin, enterotoxin A, enterotoxin B, toxic shock syndrome toxin 1, cell wall antigens, and lipase.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Immune Modulation with a Staphylococcal Preparation in Fibromyalgia/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Relation Between Antibody Levels and Clinical Improvement|date=2004-02-01|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14735403/|journal=European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases|volume=23|issue=2|pages=98–105|last=Zachrisson|first=O.|last2=Colque-Navarro|first2=P.|last3=Gottfries|first3=C. G.|last4=Regland|first4=B.|last5=M�llby|first5=R.|language=en|doi=10.1007/s10096-003-1062-8|issn=0934-9723}}</ref>

===== Potential mechanisms of action of the Staphylococcus vaccine =====
Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries does not know the mechanism by which the Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine works to improve ME/CFS. But we know from the 2004 Zachrisson study that for patients given the vaccine, the higher the level of antibodies to alpha toxin induced by the vaccine, the greater the clinical improvement obtained by the patient. So this suggests that the vaccine might ameliorate ME/CFS by neutralising Staphylococcus alpha toxin.

If we examine the effects Staphylococcus alpha toxin has in the body, we see that:

* Alpha toxin is a strong Th17 and IL-17 inducer.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Staphylococcal Alpha-Toxin Is a Strong Inducer of Interleukin-17 in Humans|date=2011-04|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3067557/|journal=Infection and Immunity|volume=79|issue=4|pages=1615–1622|last=Niebuhr|first=Margarete|last2=Gathmann|first2=Merle|last3=Scharonow|first3=Helena|last4=Mamerow|first4=Diana|last5=Mommert|first5=Susanne|last6=Balaji|first6=Hari|last7=Werfel|first7=Thomas|language=en|doi=10.1128/IAI.00958-10|issn=0019-9567}}</ref> Elevated Th17 is linked to viral persistence,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Th17 cells enhance viral persistence and inhibit T cell cytotoxicity in a model of chronic virus infection|date=2009-02-09|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2646583/|journal=Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=206|issue=2|pages=313–328|last=Hou|first=Wanqiu|last2=Kang|first2=Hyun Seok|last3=Kim|first3=Byung S.|language=en|doi=10.1084/jem.20082030|issn=1540-9538}}</ref> and may promote viral replication in acute coxsackievirus B myocarditis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The role of Th17 cells and regulatory T cells in Coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis|date=2011-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21993400/|journal=Virology|volume=421|issue=1|pages=78–84|last=Xie|first=Yuquan|last2=Chen|first2=Ruizhen|last3=Zhang|first3=Xian|last4=Chen|first4=Ping|last5=Liu|first5=Xujie|last6=Xie|first6=Yeqing|last7=Yu|first7=Yong|last8=Yang|first8=Yingzhen|last9=Zou|first9=Yunzeng|last10=Ge|first10=Junbo|last11=Chen|first11=Haozhu|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.virol.2011.09.006|issn=0042-6822}}</ref> So alpha toxin may promote viral persistence, and thus conceivably neutralising alpha toxin may support viral clearance.
* Alpha toxin binds to the cell surface protein ADAM10.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Staphylococcus aureus α-Toxin: Nearly a Century of Intrigue|date=2013-06-13|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3717774/|journal=Toxins|volume=5|issue=6|pages=1140–1166|last=Berube|first=Bryan|last2=Wardenburg|first2=Juliane|language=en|doi=10.3390/toxins5061140|issn=2072-6651}}</ref> ADAM10 is involved in several aspects of immune regulation, and ADAM10 activation may promote T-cell exhaustion, which makes it harder to clear viruses.
* Alpha toxin increases CD8 T-cell deactivation, so weakens antiviral T-cell responses.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Staphylococcus aureus
alpha-toxin inhibits CD8
+
T cell-mediated killing of cancer cells in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma|date=2020-01|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7185203/|journal=OncoImmunology|volume=9|issue=1|last=Blümel|first=Edda|last2=Munir Ahmad|first2=Shamaila|last3=Nastasi|first3=Claudia|last4=Willerslev-Olsen|first4=Andreas|last5=Gluud|first5=Maria|last6=Fredholm|first6=Simon|last7=Hu|first7=Tengpeng|last8=Surewaard|first8=Bas G. J.|last9=Lindahl|first9=Lise M.|last10=Fogh|first10=Hanne|last11=Koralov|first11=Sergei B.|language=en|doi=10.1080/2162402X.2020.1751561|issn=2162-402X}}</ref>
* Russian researchers have shown that the Staphylococcus alpha toxoid from the Russian Medgamal vaccine can correct the immune deficiency caused by coxsackievirus B infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=[Correction of immune response using purified staphylococcal toxoid and likopid in the secondary immunodeficiency induced by Coxsackie virus B3]|date=2001-09|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11871300/|journal=Zhurnal mikrobiologii, epidemiologii i immunobiologii|issue=5|language=en|issn=0372-9311}}</ref>
* Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine was used as a diabetes treatment as early as the 1930s<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Staphylococcal Toxoid in the Treatment of Diabetes|date=1936 Aug|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2065121/|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=17|issue=4|last=Wale|first=R S|last2=Madders|first2=Kate|language=en}}</ref> (type 1 diabetes is linked to coxsackievirus B4 infection).

== Learn more ==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCF_RYCnHW4 Interview with Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries, Part 1: Background and Vaccine] — YouTube
*[https://www.healthrising.org/blog/2015/11/21/gottfries-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-story/ Carl-Gerhard Gottfries: A Swedish Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Vaccine Treatment Success Story] — Cort Johnson, Health Rising, 2015
*[https://cfsremission.com/2016/01/30/a-forgotten-treatment-for-fibromyalgiachronic-fatigue-syndrome/ A forgotten treatment for fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome?] — CFS Remission blog, 2016

==See also==
*[[Staphylococcus aureus]]
*[[Carl-Gerhard Gottfries]]

==References==
<references>
<ref name="zachrisson2002">{{Citation| issn = 1090-3801| volume = 6 | issue = 6| pages = 455–466| last1 = Zachrisson | first1 = Olof | last2 = Regland | first2 = Björn | last3 = Jahreskog | first3 = Marianne | last4 = Jonsson | first4 = Michael | last5 = Kron | first5 = Margareta | last6 = Gottfries | first6 = Carl-Gerhard| title = Treatment with staphylococcus toxoid in fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome--a randomised controlled trial| journal = European Journal of Pain (London, England)| date = 2002 | pmid = 12413434}}</ref>
<ref name="zachrisson2004">{{Citation| doi = 10.1007/s10096-003-1062-8| issn = 0934-9723| volume = 23 | issue = 2| pages = 98–105| last1 = Zachrisson | first1 = O. | last2 = Colque-Navarro | first2 = P. | last3 = Gottfries | first3 = C.G. | last4 = Regland | first4 = B. | last5 = Möllby | first5 = R.| title = Immune modulation with a staphylococcal preparation in fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome: relation between antibody levels and clinical improvement| journal = European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases: Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14735403}}</ref>
</references>

[[Category:Potential treatments]]
[[Category:Immunomodulators]]
[[Category:Immunology]]

List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

2025-06-15T03:18:59Z

Hip:Added adenovirus 36 ref

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogenic microbes. By this we mean that certain microbes are found in the bodies of patients with the disease much more frequently than in the bodies of healthy people.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Preface|language=en | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/ | date = 2004|publisher=National Academies Press (US) | last = Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats | last2 = Knobler | first2 = Stacey L. | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Siobhán | last4 = Lemon | first4 = Stanley M. | last5 = Najafi | first5 = Marjan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = O'Connor | first = Siobhán M. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Christopher E. | last3 = Hughes | first3 = James M. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16836820/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1051–1057|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> When a microbe such as a [[virus]], [[bacteria|bacterium]], [[fungus]] or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether that microbe might be the cause of the disease, or might in part be causing the disease in conjunction with other causal factors. There are several possible explanations for why a microbe may be associated with a disease:
* The microbe is an "innocent bystander", playing no causal role in the disease, but for some reason, the microbe is more prevalent in the diseased organs in patients with the illness, perhaps because the immune response is compromised in these diseased organs.
* The microbe causes the disease in tandem with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposures).
* The microbe is a singular cause of the disease.
Generally the idea that persistent microbial infections living the tissues and cells of the body might be the underlying cause of many chronic diseases and cancers has not gained widespread acceptance in the medical science community; however, more and more studies are finding microbial links to chronic illnesses.

==Pathogenic microbes as a cause of chronic diseases and cancers==
Two prominent advocates of the theory that microbes are the cause of numerous chronic diseases and cancers are evolutionary biologist [[wikipedia:Paul_W._Ewald|Professor Paul W. Ewald]], and physicist and anthropologist [[wikipedia:Gregory_Cochran|Dr Gregory Cochran]]. They posit that many chronic diseases and cancers whose etiology is currently unknown will, in the future, likely turn out to be caused by damaging effects from chronic microbial infections living in the body's tissues and cells.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=|title=Plague time: the new germ theory of disease|publisher=Anchor Books|date=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|first=Paul W.|last=Ewald|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease}}</ref><ref name="InfectiousCausation">{{Cite journal|title=Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective|date=2000|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10893730/|journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine|volume=43|issue=3|pages=406–448|last=Cochran|first=G.M.|last2=Ewald|first2=P.W.|last3=Cochran|first3=K.D.|doi=10.1353/pbm.2000.0016|pmid=10893730|issn=0031-5982}}</ref> This viewpoint sharply contrasts with traditional notions of disease etiology, that defective genes, diet, and lifestyle factors underpin disease.

Professor Ewald supports his thesis that germs, not genes, are the primary cause of illnesses with an argument from evolutionary biology: he explains that any faulty genes that cause disease and thus reduce survival and procreation will be rapidly eliminated from the gene pool within a few generations by means of evolutionary natural selection.<ref name="PlagueTime">{{Cite book|title=Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|language=en|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|last=Ewald|first=Paul W.|pages=56}}</ref> Faulty genes are therefore self-extinguishing, and because evolution filters out defective genes so effectively, one would not expect many diseases to result from genetic faults.

Professor Ewald points out that the only faulty genes that are likely to persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, he says the genes that encode for sickle cell disease are maintained and persist down the generations because although these genes are bad, they also protect against malaria, which is a compensating advantage.

Scientists once believed that defective genes would largely explain how most chronic diseases and cancers arise. This belief in part motivated the multi-billion investment in the Human Genome Project, the enterprise to map out all human genes and the entire human genome. But once the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, it soon became apparent that genes do not play a major role in the development of most diseases and cancers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/apr/17/human-genome-genetics-twin-studies|title=The failure of the genome|last=Latham|first=Jonathan|date=2011-04-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> One large meta-analysis found that for the vast majority of chronic diseases, the genetic contribution to the risk of developing the disease is only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191219142739.htm|title=Your DNA is not your destiny -- or a good predictor of your health|date=December 19, 2019|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pafron2019">{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk|date=2019|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31805043/|journal=PloS One|volume=14|issue=12|pages=e0220215|last=Patron|first=Jonas|last2=Serra-Cayuela|first2=Arnau|last3=Han|first3=Beomsoo|last4=Li|first4=Carin|last5=Wishart|first5=David Scott|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220215|pmc=6894795|pmid=31805043|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

Thus the Human Genome Project failed to live up to its hype, and failed to uncover the underlying causes of chronic diseases and cancers. But thanks to this project, we now know genetic factors are not major players in the triggering of disease. So if defective genes cannot explain how chronic diseases and cancers arise, we have to examine other possible causal factors that may be driving disease. When we look at the list of possible causal factors that might underpin disease, that list is short, it consists of: environmental toxins, radiations, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet, and lifestyle factors. There are not many options in that list, which thus brings renewed focus on the idea that infectious agents may be the key players in the development of disease.

Other researchers with an interest in the idea that infectious microbes may be the hidden cause of many chronic diseases and cancers include: Dr Hanan Polansky,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Latent viruses can cause disease by disrupting the competition for the limiting factor p300/CBP|date=2018 Nov 26|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6260892/|journal=Cellular & Molecular Biology Letters|volume=23|pages=56|last=Polansky|first=Hanan|last2=Schwab|first2=Hava|language=en|doi=10.1186/s11658-018-0121-1|pmc=6260892|pmid=30505323}}</ref> Prof Siobhán M. O'Connor,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases - Volume 12, Number 7—July 2006 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/7/06-0037_article|last=O'Connor|first=Siobhán M.|last2=Taylor|first2=Christopher E.|last3=Hughes|first3=James M.|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> Prof Steven S. Coughlin,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases|date=2012 Dec 9|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175921/|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=34|pages=7|last=Coughlin|first=Steven S.|language=en|doi=10.1007/BF03391675|pmc=4175921|pmid=25264396}}</ref> Prof Timothy J. Henrich,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Overview of Infection- Associated Chronic Illnesses|date=2024-04-03|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK602972/|last=National Academies of Sciences|first=Engineering|last2=Division|first2=Health and Medicine|last3=Policy|first3=Board on Health Sciences|last4=Health|first4=Board on Global|last5=Disorders|first5=Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System|last6=Threats|first6=Forum on Microbial|last7=Snair|first7=Megan|last8=Liao|first8=Julie|last9=Ashby|first9=Elizabeth|last10=Biffl|first10=Claire|language=en|publisher=National Academies Press (US)}}</ref> and Prof Wendy Bjerke.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings|date=2011-01-01|url=https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/pthms_fac/2|journal=All PTHMS Faculty Publications|volume=5|issue=1|last=Bjerke|first=Wendy|doi=10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.05}}</ref>

Note, however, that more than one causal factor may be involved in the onset and development of a chronic disease or cancer: an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are simultaneously present. An example of this arises in a mouse model of Crohn's disease, an illness that can be precipitated by a norovirus infection of the intestinal tissues, but only when both a specific gene variant is present, and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine|date=2010-06-25|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997/|journal=Cell|volume=141|issue=7|pages=1135–1145|last=Cadwell|first=Ken|last2=Patel|first2=Khushbu K.|last3=Maloney|first3=Nicole S.|last4=Liu|first4=Ta-Chiang|last5=Ng|first5=Aylwin C.Y.|last6=Storer|first6=Chad E.|last7=Head|first7=Richard D.|last8=Xavier|first8=Ramnik|last9=Stappenbeck|first9=Thaddeus S.|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009|pmc=2908380|pmid=20602997|issn=1097-4172}}</ref> Thus although a microbe may be the primary factor in the onset of diease, its ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon other causal factors.

Microbe-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.<ref name="Kockaya2010">{{Cite journal|title=What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures|date=2010-10-26|url=http://www.scirp.org/Journal/Paperabs.aspx?paperid=2817|journal=Health|volume=2|issue=10|pages=1174–1178|last=Kockaya|first=Guvenc|last2=Wertheimer|first2=Albert|language=en|doi=10.4236/health.2010.210172}}</ref> About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/default/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf|title=Almanac of Chronic Disease|last=Carmona|first=Richard H.|authorlink=|date=2009|website=|publisher=Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|at=Forward|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens==
In the following list of diseases linked to infectious microbes, there is a good possibility that the microbes might be causing the disease, but further research is needed to work out whether these microbes do play a causal role.

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to microbes, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of microbe-associated illnesses.
{| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0"
| style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''Microbes Linked to the Disease'''
|-
| '''Alzheimer's disease'''
| Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>, [[Helicobacter pylori]]<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and Fusobacterium nucleatum.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Periodontal Pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum Exacerbates Alzheimer’s Pathogenesis via Specific Pathways|date=2022 Jun 23|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9260256/|journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience|volume=14|pages=912709|last=Wu|first=Hongle|last2=Qiu|first2=Wei|last3=Zhu|first3=Xiaofang|last4=Li|first4=Xiangfen|last5=Xie|first5=Zhongcong|last6=Carreras|first6=Isabel|last7=Dedeoglu|first7=Alpaslan|last8=Dyke|first8=Thomas Van|last9=Han|first9=Yiping W.|last10=Karimbux|first10=Nadeem|last11=Tu|first11=Qisheng|language=en|doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.912709|pmc=9260256|pmid=35813949}}</ref> Alzheimer's is associated with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref>
Alzheimer's is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1 in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref> Alzheimer's has been linked to [[cytomegalovirus]] infection of the brain, which may enter the brain by travelling along the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alzheimer's disease-associated CD83(+) microglia are linked with increased immunoglobulin G4 and human cytomegalovirus in the gut, vagal nerve, and brain|date=2024-12-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39698934/|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association|last=Readhead|first=Benjamin P.|last2=Mastroeni|first2=Diego F.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi|last4=Sierra|first4=Maria A.|last5=de Ávila|first5=Camila|last6=Jimoh|first6=Tajudeen O.|last7=Haure-Mirande|first7=Jean-Vianney|last8=Atanasoff|first8=Kristina E.|last9=Nolz|first9=Jennifer|last10=Suazo|first10=Crystal|last11=Barton|first11=Nathaniel J.|doi=10.1002/alz.14401|pmid=39698934|issn=1552-5279}}</ref> The viruses [[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal|title=Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|date=Dec 2015|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|last=Pisa|first=Diana|authorlink=|last2=Alonso|first2=Ruth|authorlink2=|last3=Rábano|first3=Alberto|authorlink3=|last4=Rodal|first4=Izaskun|authorlink4=|last5=Carrasco|first5=Luis|authorlink5=|language=en|doi=10.1038/srep15015|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|issn=2045-2322|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]'''
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with retrovirus<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
|-
| '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]'''
| Infection with borrelia species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa.<ref name="pmid7943444" /> In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[Streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. Adolescent girls who had hospital-treated infections, or had less severe infections treated with anti-infective agents, were found to be at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Exposure to Infections in Childhood With Risk of Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls|date=2019 Apr 24|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6487907/|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=76|issue=8|pages=800|last=Breithaupt|first=Lauren|last2=Köhler-Forsberg|first2=Ole|last3=Larsen|first3=Janne Tidselbak|last4=Benros|first4=Michael E.|last5=Thornton|first5=Laura Marie|last6=Bulik|first6=Cynthia M.|last7=Petersen|first7=Liselotte|language=en|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0297|pmc=6487907|pmid=31017632}}</ref> [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" />
|-
| '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]'''
| Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Helicobacter pylori Infection with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|date=10 July 2024|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/9247586|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|last=Li|first=L|last2=Ren|first2=Y|doi=10.1155/2024/9247586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Helicobacter pylori infection association with anxiety in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms in Hadhramout|url=https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/helicobacter-pylori-infection-association-with-anxiety-in-patients-with-upper-gastrointestinal-symptoms-in-hadhramout-27168.html|journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Digestive Diseases|volume=8|issue=5|pages=daakeek|last=Ahmed M.|last2=Musiaan|first2=Nabeel S.|last3=Al-Zaazaai|first3=Ahmed}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Infection with Toxoplasma gondii increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study|date=2020 Jul 30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10317747/|journal=Parasitology|volume=147|issue=13|pages=1577|last=Lin|first=Hsin-An|last2=Chien|first2=Wu-Chien|last3=Huang|first3=Kuo-Yang|last4=Chung|first4=Chi-Hsiang|last5=Chen|first5=Lih-Chyang|last6=Lin|first6=Hsin-Chung|last7=Guo|first7=Jong-Long|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0031182020001183|pmc=10317747|pmid=32729456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Population-based cohort study of Toxoplasma gondii P22 antibody positivity correlation with anxiety|date=2024-08-15|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38729222/|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=359|pages=41–48|last=Yang|first=Lili|last2=Wang|first2=Biyun|last3=Wu|first3=Shuizhen|last4=Yang|first4=Zihan|last5=Xin|first5=Zixuan|last6=Zheng|first6=Shuyu|last7=Zou|first7=Weihao|last8=Zhang|first8=Chi|last9=Chen|first9=Jiating|last10=Peng|first10=Hongjuan|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.043|pmid=38729222|issn=1573-2517}}</ref> and associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Asthma]]'''
| Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref>
|-
| '''Atherosclerosis'''
| Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> Atherosclerosis is linked to the bacteria Helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref>
|-
| '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder'''
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[Streptococcus]], and with the viruses HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].
Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref>
|-
| '''Autism'''
| Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s'''
| Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases are linked to the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref>
|-
| '''Bipolar disorder'''
| Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Cancer]]'''
|Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to microbial causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the microbes currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some microbes proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to microbes that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

* '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref>
* '''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref>
* '''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by Schistosoma helminths.<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref>
* '''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref>
* '''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref>
* '''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref>
* '''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[Helicobacter pylori]], Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref>
* '''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref>
* '''Hodgkin's lymphoma''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref>
* '''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
* '''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref>
* '''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref>
* '''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
* '''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
* '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref>
* '''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
* '''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref>
* '''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.
* '''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with mumps virus.<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref>
* '''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref>
* '''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref>
* '''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref>
* '''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref>
* '''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref>
* '''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]'''
|Myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is primarily associated with two [[enterovirus]]es, namely [[Coxsackie B virus]] and [[echovirus]] (for references see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]); with three [[herpesviruses]], namely [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[cytomegalovirus]] and [[human herpesvirus 6]] (for references see [[list of herpesvirus infection studies]]); and with [[SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref>
More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6:58|access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after Giardia enteritis: clinical characteristics, disability and long-term sickness absence|date=2012-02-08|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22316329/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=12|pages=13|last=Naess|first=Halvor|last2=Nyland|first2=Morten|last3=Hausken|first3=Trygve|last4=Follestad|first4=Inghild|last5=Nyland|first5=Harald I.|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-12-13|pmc=3292445|pmid=22316329|issn=1471-230X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome 5 years after giardiasis: differential diagnoses, characteristics and natural course|date=2013-02-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399438/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=13|pages=28|last=Mørch|first=Kristine|last2=Hanevik|first2=Kurt|last3=Rivenes|first3=Ann C.|last4=Bødtker|first4=Jørn E.|last5=Næss|first5=Halvor|last6=Stubhaug|first6=Bjarte|last7=Wensaas|first7=Knut-Arne|last8=Rortveit|first8=Guri|last9=Eide|first9=Geir E.|last10=Hausken|first10=Trygve|last11=Langeland|first11=Nina|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-13-28|pmc=3598369|pmid=23399438|issn=1471-230X}}</ref> [[Ross River virus]] <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Changing epidemiology of Ross River virus disease in South Australia|date=1996-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8862330/|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=165|issue=6|pages=313–317|last=Selden|first=S. M.|last2=Cameron|first2=A. S.|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124989.x|pmid=8862330|issn=0025-729X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study|date=2006-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16950834/|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=333|issue=7568|pages=575|last=Hickie|first=Ian|last2=Davenport|first2=Tracey|last3=Wakefield|first3=Denis|last4=Vollmer-Conna|first4=Ute|last5=Cameron|first5=Barbara|last6=Vernon|first6=Suzanne D.|last7=Reeves|first7=William C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Andrew|last9=Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group|doi=10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE|pmc=1569956|pmid=16950834|issn=1756-1833}}</ref> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evaluation of Prolonged Fatigue Post–West Nile Virus Infection and Association of Fatigue with Elevated Antiviral and Proinflammatory Cytokines|date=2014-09-01|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4150370/|journal=Viral Immunology|volume=27|issue=7|pages=327–333|last=Garcia|first=Melissa N.|last2=Hause|first2=Anne M.|last3=Walker|first3=Christopher M.|last4=Orange|first4=Jordan S.|last5=Hasbun|first5=Rodrigo|last6=Murray|first6=Kristy O.|doi=10.1089/vim.2014.0035|pmc=4150370|pmid=25062274|issn=0882-8245}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic myocarditis'''
|Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease'''
|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Crohn's disease]]'''
|Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus Candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]] and Serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref> Crohn's disease development has been linked to commensal yeast Candida albicans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An immunological link between Candida albicans colonization and Crohn's disease|date=2015-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23855357/|journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology|volume=41|issue=2|pages=135–139|last=Gerard|first=Romain|last2=Sendid|first2=Boualem|last3=Colombel|first3=Jean-Frederic|last4=Poulain|first4=Daniel|last5=Jouault|first5=Thierry|doi=10.3109/1040841X.2013.810587|pmid=23855357|issn=1549-7828}}</ref> One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref> Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref> In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when all three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
|-
|'''Coronary heart disease'''
|Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dementia'''
|Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444" />
|-
|'''[[Depression]]'''
|Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> Depression is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and psychiatric disorders: a cross-sectional study in China|date=2022 Sep 5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9445102/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=15092|last=Liu|first=Taixiu|last2=Gao|first2=Peng|last3=Bu|first3=Deyun|last4=Liu|first4=Dong|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-16420-y|pmc=9445102|pmid=36064811}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref>

* '''[[depression|Major depressive disorder]]''' is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> as well as [[Bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal | last = Schaller | first = James L. | last2 = Burkland | first2 = Glenn A. | last3 = Langhoff | first3 = P.J. | date = 2007-09-13 | title = Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3 | pages = 54|issn=1531-0132|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060}}</ref> and [[Borrelia]]<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
* '''Seasonal affective disorder''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]'''
|Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[Coxsackie B virus]] can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms.<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref>
Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref>

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family.
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]'''
|Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus.<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from a Staphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dilated cardiomyopathy'''
|Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref>
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|'''Epilepsy'''
|Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) infection of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref>
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|'''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]'''
|Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref>
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|'''[[Hypertension]]'''
|Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref>
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|'''Infertility'''
|Infertility is linked to an endometrium infection with [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus variant A (HHV-6A).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref>
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|'''[[Interstitial cystitis]]'''
|The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomaviruses, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> and treatment with the EBV antiviral valacyclovir results in clinical improvement in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary Viral Spectrum in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome and the Clinical Efficacy of Valacyclovir Treatment|date=2024-02-26|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38540138/|journal=Biomedicines|volume=12|issue=3|pages=522|last=Kuo|first=Hann-Chorng|last2=Peng|first2=Chih-Wen|last3=Jiang|first3=Yuan-Hong|last4=Jhang|first4=Jia-Fong|doi=10.3390/biomedicines12030522|pmc=10967905|pmid=38540138|issn=2227-9059}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]'''
|Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> IBS is linked to protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> IBS in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Lower back pain]]'''
|Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]'''
|Systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with the viruses [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal | last = James | first = Judith A. | last2 = Harley | first2 = John B. | last3 = Scofield | first3 = R. Hal | date = Sep 2006 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5 | pages = 462–467|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|issn=1040-8711|pmid=16896283}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref>
|-
|'''Macular degeneration'''
|Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high cytomegalovirus antibody titers.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Metabolic syndrome]]'''
|Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and Helicobacter pylori. It is also linked to the viruses cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref>
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|'''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'''
|Multiple sclerosis is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus.<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> One study found EBV in the brain tissues of most ME patients.<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2|pages=e0192109|last=Hassani|first=Asma|last2=Corboy|first2=John R.|last3=Al-Salam|first3=Suhail|last4=Khan|first4=Gulfaraz|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> A landmark 2022 longitudinal study provided strong evidence that EBV is the leading cause of multiple sclerosis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Longitudinal analysis reveals high prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus associated with multiple sclerosis|date=2022-01-21|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35025605/|journal=Science|volume=375|issue=6578|pages=296–301|last=Bjornevik|first=Kjetil|last2=Cortese|first2=Marianna|last3=Healy|first3=Brian C.|last4=Kuhle|first4=Jens|last5=Mina|first5=Michael J.|last6=Leng|first6=Yumei|last7=Elledge|first7=Stephen J.|last8=Niebuhr|first8=David W.|last9=Scher|first9=Ann I.|last10=Munger|first10=Kassandra L.|last11=Ascherio|first11=Alberto|language=en|doi=10.1126/science.abj8222|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Multiple sclerosis is also linked to [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref>
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|'''Myocardial infarction'''
|Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of a sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref>
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|'''Myopia'''
|Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough) and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref>
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|'''[[Obesity]]'''
|Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Adenovirus 36 prevalence and association with human obesity: a systematic review|date=2021-03-22|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41366-021-00805-6|journal=International Journal of Obesity|volume=45|issue=6|pages=1342–1356|last=da Silva Fernandes|first=Jaime|last2=Schuelter-Trevisol|first2=Fabiana|last3=Cancelier|first3=Ana Carolina Lobor|last4=Gonçalves e Silva|first4=Helena Caetano|last5=de Sousa|first5=Daiana Gomes|last6=Atkinson|first6=Richard L.|last7=Trevisol|first7=Daisson José|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41366-021-00805-6|issn=0307-0565}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36, adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37 will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> It is known that adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref> Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref>
Obesity is associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium, [[Staphylococcus]], [[Streptococcus]], and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref>
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'''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]'''
|Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with Streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
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'''[[Panic disorder]]'''
|Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" />
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'''[[Parkinson's disease]]'''
|Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]],<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7|pages=302|last=Dourmashkin|first=Robert R.|last2=McCall|first2=Sherman A.|last3=Dourmashkin|first3=Neil|last4=Hannah|first4=Matthew J.|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977|issn=2046-1402}}</ref> Ljungan virus (from the picornavirus family),<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> and [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus.<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> Parkinson's is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref>
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'''Psoriasis'''
|Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref>
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'''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]'''
|Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and Proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[Borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref>
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'''[[Sarcoidosis]]'''
|Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref>
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'''Schizophrenia'''
|Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]].<ref name="pmid12857781" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name=":1" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> Borrelia,<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella henselae (the cause of cat scratch disease).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref>
One study found that a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found influenza virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk that the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref>

Individuals experiencing acute psychosis are nearly 11 times more likely to have a urinary tract infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary tract infections in acute psychosis|date=2014-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24499998/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=75|issue=4|pages=379–385|last=Graham|first=Krystle L.|last2=Carson|first2=Chelsea M.|last3=Ezeoke|first3=Amaka|last4=Buckley|first4=Peter F.|last5=Miller|first5=Brian J.|doi=10.4088/JCP.13m08469|pmid=24499998|issn=1555-2101}}</ref>
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'''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]'''
|Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the enterovirus [[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref>
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'''Stroke'''
|Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[Helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> Mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> Stroke is linked to [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus Histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref>
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'''Tourette syndrome'''
|Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[Streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref>
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|'''Valvular heart disease'''
|Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissues.
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'''Vasculitis'''
|Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.
|}

==Difficulties in determining whether a pathogenic microbe might be causing a disease==
Determining whether a pathogenic microbe plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:
*The time between contracting the infectious microbe and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
*An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
*An infectious microbe may not cause its associated disease in every person.
*Only specific strains of a microbe may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).<ref name="Mechelli2015">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref>
*A given disease may be precipitated by more than one microbe.
*A microbe may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
*A microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
*Some microbes are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect microbes to a disease.
*For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
*A microbe may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the microbe.
In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large body of published studies demonstrating these associations.

==Notable studies==
*2000, [https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2000.0016 Infectious Causation of Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective] - Gregory Cochran, Paul W. Ewald ''et al''
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83689/ The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary] - Forum on Microbial Threats
*2004, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128097/ Virus-induced neurobehavioral disorders: mechanisms and implications] - Keizo Tomonaga
*2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011700/ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/eid/vol4no3/adobe/cassell.pdf Infectious Causes of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer] - Gail H. Cassell
*2006, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291059/ Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases] - Siobhán M O'Connor ''et al''
*2006, [[pmc:1479565/|The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers: it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human micro ecology and the nature of chronic disease]] - Caroline Hadley
*2008, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioral-psychiatric-au Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2010, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioural-psychiatric-a Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2011, [https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=jsbhs The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings] - Wendy Bjerke
*2012, [https://mpkb.org/home/pathogenesis/evidence_bacteria Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens] - Autoimmunity Research Foundation
*2012, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS407997/ Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases] - Steven S Coughlin
*2013, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23935899/ Causal Inference Regarding Infectious Aetiology of Chronic Conditions: A Systematic Review] - Sofia Orrskog ''et al''
*2023, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779437/ Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future] - Robert C Bransfield ''et al''
*2024, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349683/ Viral infections in etiology of mental disorders: a broad analysis of cytokine profile similarities – a narrative review] - Piotr Lorkiewicz ''et al''

==Articles and blogs==
*1999, [https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/0223102a.html Do Germs Cause Cancer?] - Forbes
*1999 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/a-new-germ-theory/377430/ A New Germ Theory] - The Atlantic Monthly Magazine
*1999, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199907/the-infection-connection The Infection Connection] - Psychology Today
*2005, [https://www.alzforum.org/webinars/pathogen-hypothesis-challenging-primacy-genetics-late-onset-alzheimer-disease?liveID=36 Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease] - Alzheimer Research Forum
*2008, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080522155752.htm The Emerging Role Of Infection In Alzheimer's Disease] - Science Daily
*2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230530004102/https://microbeminded.com/2017/11/11/interview-with-evolutionary-biologist-paul-ewald-infection-and-chronic-disease/ Interview With Evolutionary Biologist Paul Ewald] - Amy Proal
*2008, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infected-with-insanity/ Infected with Insanity: Could Microbes Cause Mental Illness?] - Scientific American
*2009, [https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-big-idea-that-might-beat-cancer-and-cut-health-care-costs-by-80-percent The Big Idea That Might Beat Cancer and Cut Health-Care Costs by 80 Percent] - Discover Magazine
*2010, [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/crohns-disease-triggers-may-include-viruses-other-factors Crohn’s Disease Triggers May Include Viruses and Other Factors] - National Institutes of Health
*2012, [https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-an-infection-suddenly-cause-ocd-201202274417 Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?] - Harvard Health Blog
*2012, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-perfectionists-handbook/201202/can-infections-result-in-mental-illness Can Infections Result in Mental Illness?] - Psychology Today
*2013, [https://www.medicaldaily.com/people-hospitalized-infections-are-62-more-likely-develop-mood-disorder-246876 People Hospitalized For Infections Are 62% More Likely To Develop A Mood Disorder] - Medical Daily
*2014, [https://www.livescience.com/43356-chronic-infections-cognitive-decline.html Chronic Infections Linked with Memory Problems Later in Life] - Live Science
*2015, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/05/150521095016.htm Infections can affect your IQ] - Science Daily
*2016, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q9zAG92V9M Toward a Unified, Evolutionary Theory of Cancer] - Paul Ewald: video on the infectious causes of cancer
*2019, [https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/psychiatric-disorders-are-infectious-agents-blame Psychiatric Disorders: Are Infectious Agents to Blame?] - Psychiatric Times
*2023, [https://www.mdedge.com/rheumatology/article/264214/long-covid/infection-related-chronic-illness-new-paradigm-research-and/page/0/1 Infection-related chronic illness: A new paradigm for research and treatment] - MDedge
*2023, [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/22/health/viral-infections-autoimmune-covid.html How Viral Infections Cause Long-Term Health Problems] - New York Tines

==Books==
*2002, [https://www.amazon.com/Plague-Time-Germ-Theory-Disease/dp/0385721846 Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease] - Paul W. Ewald
*2003, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714733_Microcompetition_with_Foreign_DNA_and_the_Origin_of_Chronic_Disease Microcompetition With Foreign DNA And the Origin of Chronic Disease] - Hanan Polansky
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561283/ Microbial Triggers of Chronic Human Illness] - American Society for Microbiology
*2006, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Potbelly-Syndrome-Obesity-Diabetes-Disease/dp/159120058X Potbelly Syndrome: How Common Germs Lead to Obesity, Diabetes and Heart Disease] - Russel Farris and Per Marin
*2008, [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5996250-stealth-germs-in-your-body Stealth Germs in Your Body] - Erno Daniel

==See also==
*[[Virus]]
*[[Pathogen]]s
*[[:Category:Triggers and risk factors|Triggers and risk factors (category)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Lists]]

List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

2025-06-14T00:20:15Z

Hip:Cleaned up text.

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogenic microbes. By this we mean that certain microbes are found in the bodies of patients with the disease much more frequently than in the bodies of healthy people.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Preface|language=en | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/ | date = 2004|publisher=National Academies Press (US) | last = Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats | last2 = Knobler | first2 = Stacey L. | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Siobhán | last4 = Lemon | first4 = Stanley M. | last5 = Najafi | first5 = Marjan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = O'Connor | first = Siobhán M. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Christopher E. | last3 = Hughes | first3 = James M. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16836820/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1051–1057|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> When a microbe such as a [[virus]], [[bacteria|bacterium]], [[fungus]] or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether that microbe might be the cause of the disease, or might in part be causing the disease in conjunction with other causal factors. There are several possible explanations for why a microbe may be associated with a disease:
* The microbe is an "innocent bystander", playing no causal role in the disease, but for some reason, the microbe is more prevalent in the diseased organs in patients with the illness, perhaps because the immune response is compromised in these diseased organs.
* The microbe causes the disease in tandem with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposures).
* The microbe is a singular cause of the disease.
Generally the idea that persistent microbial infections living the tissues and cells of the body might be the underlying cause of many chronic diseases and cancers has not gained widespread acceptance in the medical science community; however, more and more studies are finding microbial links to chronic illnesses.

==Pathogenic microbes as a cause of chronic diseases and cancers==
Two prominent advocates of the theory that microbes are the cause of numerous chronic diseases and cancers are evolutionary biologist [[wikipedia:Paul_W._Ewald|Professor Paul W. Ewald]], and physicist and anthropologist [[wikipedia:Gregory_Cochran|Dr Gregory Cochran]]. They posit that many chronic diseases and cancers whose etiology is currently unknown will, in the future, likely turn out to be caused by damaging effects from chronic microbial infections living in the body's tissues and cells.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=|title=Plague time: the new germ theory of disease|publisher=Anchor Books|date=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|first=Paul W.|last=Ewald|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease}}</ref><ref name="InfectiousCausation">{{Cite journal|title=Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective|date=2000|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10893730/|journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine|volume=43|issue=3|pages=406–448|last=Cochran|first=G.M.|last2=Ewald|first2=P.W.|last3=Cochran|first3=K.D.|doi=10.1353/pbm.2000.0016|pmid=10893730|issn=0031-5982}}</ref> This viewpoint sharply contrasts with traditional notions of disease etiology, that defective genes, diet, and lifestyle factors underpin disease.

Professor Ewald supports his thesis that germs, not genes, are the primary cause of illnesses with an argument from evolutionary biology: he explains that any faulty genes that cause disease and thus reduce survival and procreation will be rapidly eliminated from the gene pool within a few generations by means of evolutionary natural selection.<ref name="PlagueTime">{{Cite book|title=Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|language=en|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|last=Ewald|first=Paul W.|pages=56}}</ref> Faulty genes are therefore self-extinguishing, and because evolution filters out defective genes so effectively, one would not expect many diseases to result from genetic faults.

Professor Ewald points out that the only faulty genes that are likely to persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, he says the genes that encode for sickle cell disease are maintained and persist down the generations because although these genes are bad, they also protect against malaria, which is a compensating advantage.

Scientists once believed that defective genes would largely explain how most chronic diseases and cancers arise. This belief in part motivated the multi-billion investment in the Human Genome Project, the enterprise to map out all human genes and the entire human genome. But once the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, it soon became apparent that genes do not play a major role in the development of most diseases and cancers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/apr/17/human-genome-genetics-twin-studies|title=The failure of the genome|last=Latham|first=Jonathan|date=2011-04-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> One large meta-analysis found that for the vast majority of chronic diseases, the genetic contribution to the risk of developing the disease is only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191219142739.htm|title=Your DNA is not your destiny -- or a good predictor of your health|date=December 19, 2019|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pafron2019">{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk|date=2019|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31805043/|journal=PloS One|volume=14|issue=12|pages=e0220215|last=Patron|first=Jonas|last2=Serra-Cayuela|first2=Arnau|last3=Han|first3=Beomsoo|last4=Li|first4=Carin|last5=Wishart|first5=David Scott|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220215|pmc=6894795|pmid=31805043|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

Thus the Human Genome Project failed to live up to its hype, and failed to uncover the underlying causes of chronic diseases and cancers. But thanks to this project, we now know genetic factors are not major players in the triggering of disease. So if defective genes cannot explain how chronic diseases and cancers arise, we have to examine other possible causal factors that may be driving disease. When we look at the list of possible causal factors that might underpin disease, that list is short, it consists of: environmental toxins, radiations, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet, and lifestyle factors. There are not many options in that list, which thus brings renewed focus on the idea that infectious agents may be the key players in the development of disease.

Other researchers with an interest in the idea that infectious microbes may be the hidden cause of many chronic diseases and cancers include: Dr Hanan Polansky,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Latent viruses can cause disease by disrupting the competition for the limiting factor p300/CBP|date=2018 Nov 26|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6260892/|journal=Cellular & Molecular Biology Letters|volume=23|pages=56|last=Polansky|first=Hanan|last2=Schwab|first2=Hava|language=en|doi=10.1186/s11658-018-0121-1|pmc=6260892|pmid=30505323}}</ref> Prof Siobhán M. O'Connor,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases - Volume 12, Number 7—July 2006 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/7/06-0037_article|last=O'Connor|first=Siobhán M.|last2=Taylor|first2=Christopher E.|last3=Hughes|first3=James M.|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> Prof Steven S. Coughlin,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases|date=2012 Dec 9|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175921/|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=34|pages=7|last=Coughlin|first=Steven S.|language=en|doi=10.1007/BF03391675|pmc=4175921|pmid=25264396}}</ref> Prof Timothy J. Henrich,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Overview of Infection- Associated Chronic Illnesses|date=2024-04-03|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK602972/|last=National Academies of Sciences|first=Engineering|last2=Division|first2=Health and Medicine|last3=Policy|first3=Board on Health Sciences|last4=Health|first4=Board on Global|last5=Disorders|first5=Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System|last6=Threats|first6=Forum on Microbial|last7=Snair|first7=Megan|last8=Liao|first8=Julie|last9=Ashby|first9=Elizabeth|last10=Biffl|first10=Claire|language=en|publisher=National Academies Press (US)}}</ref> and Prof Wendy Bjerke.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings|date=2011-01-01|url=https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/pthms_fac/2|journal=All PTHMS Faculty Publications|volume=5|issue=1|last=Bjerke|first=Wendy|doi=10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.05}}</ref>

Note, however, that more than one causal factor may be involved in the onset and development of a chronic disease or cancer: an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are simultaneously present. An example of this arises in a mouse model of Crohn's disease, an illness that can be precipitated by a norovirus infection of the intestinal tissues, but only when both a specific gene variant is present, and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine|date=2010-06-25|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997/|journal=Cell|volume=141|issue=7|pages=1135–1145|last=Cadwell|first=Ken|last2=Patel|first2=Khushbu K.|last3=Maloney|first3=Nicole S.|last4=Liu|first4=Ta-Chiang|last5=Ng|first5=Aylwin C.Y.|last6=Storer|first6=Chad E.|last7=Head|first7=Richard D.|last8=Xavier|first8=Ramnik|last9=Stappenbeck|first9=Thaddeus S.|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009|pmc=2908380|pmid=20602997|issn=1097-4172}}</ref> Thus although a microbe may be the primary factor in the onset of diease, its ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon other causal factors.

Microbe-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.<ref name="Kockaya2010">{{Cite journal|title=What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures|date=2010-10-26|url=http://www.scirp.org/Journal/Paperabs.aspx?paperid=2817|journal=Health|volume=2|issue=10|pages=1174–1178|last=Kockaya|first=Guvenc|last2=Wertheimer|first2=Albert|language=en|doi=10.4236/health.2010.210172}}</ref> About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/default/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf|title=Almanac of Chronic Disease|last=Carmona|first=Richard H.|authorlink=|date=2009|website=|publisher=Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|at=Forward|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens==
In the following list of diseases linked to infectious microbes, there is a good possibility that the microbes might be causing the disease, but further research is needed to work out whether these microbes do play a causal role.

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to microbes, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of microbe-associated illnesses.
{| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0"
| style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''Microbes Linked to the Disease'''
|-
| '''Alzheimer's disease'''
| Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>, [[Helicobacter pylori]]<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and Fusobacterium nucleatum.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Periodontal Pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum Exacerbates Alzheimer’s Pathogenesis via Specific Pathways|date=2022 Jun 23|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9260256/|journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience|volume=14|pages=912709|last=Wu|first=Hongle|last2=Qiu|first2=Wei|last3=Zhu|first3=Xiaofang|last4=Li|first4=Xiangfen|last5=Xie|first5=Zhongcong|last6=Carreras|first6=Isabel|last7=Dedeoglu|first7=Alpaslan|last8=Dyke|first8=Thomas Van|last9=Han|first9=Yiping W.|last10=Karimbux|first10=Nadeem|last11=Tu|first11=Qisheng|language=en|doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.912709|pmc=9260256|pmid=35813949}}</ref> Alzheimer's is associated with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref>
Alzheimer's is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1 in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref> Alzheimer's has been linked to [[cytomegalovirus]] infection of the brain, which may enter the brain by travelling along the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alzheimer's disease-associated CD83(+) microglia are linked with increased immunoglobulin G4 and human cytomegalovirus in the gut, vagal nerve, and brain|date=2024-12-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39698934/|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association|last=Readhead|first=Benjamin P.|last2=Mastroeni|first2=Diego F.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi|last4=Sierra|first4=Maria A.|last5=de Ávila|first5=Camila|last6=Jimoh|first6=Tajudeen O.|last7=Haure-Mirande|first7=Jean-Vianney|last8=Atanasoff|first8=Kristina E.|last9=Nolz|first9=Jennifer|last10=Suazo|first10=Crystal|last11=Barton|first11=Nathaniel J.|doi=10.1002/alz.14401|pmid=39698934|issn=1552-5279}}</ref> The viruses [[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal|title=Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|date=Dec 2015|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|last=Pisa|first=Diana|authorlink=|last2=Alonso|first2=Ruth|authorlink2=|last3=Rábano|first3=Alberto|authorlink3=|last4=Rodal|first4=Izaskun|authorlink4=|last5=Carrasco|first5=Luis|authorlink5=|language=en|doi=10.1038/srep15015|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|issn=2045-2322|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]'''
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with retrovirus<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
|-
| '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]'''
| Infection with borrelia species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa.<ref name="pmid7943444" /> In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[Streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. Adolescent girls who had hospital-treated infections, or had less severe infections treated with anti-infective agents, were found to be at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Exposure to Infections in Childhood With Risk of Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls|date=2019 Apr 24|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6487907/|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=76|issue=8|pages=800|last=Breithaupt|first=Lauren|last2=Köhler-Forsberg|first2=Ole|last3=Larsen|first3=Janne Tidselbak|last4=Benros|first4=Michael E.|last5=Thornton|first5=Laura Marie|last6=Bulik|first6=Cynthia M.|last7=Petersen|first7=Liselotte|language=en|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0297|pmc=6487907|pmid=31017632}}</ref> [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" />
|-
| '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]'''
| Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Helicobacter pylori Infection with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|date=10 July 2024|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/9247586|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|last=Li|first=L|last2=Ren|first2=Y|doi=10.1155/2024/9247586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Helicobacter pylori infection association with anxiety in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms in Hadhramout|url=https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/helicobacter-pylori-infection-association-with-anxiety-in-patients-with-upper-gastrointestinal-symptoms-in-hadhramout-27168.html|journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Digestive Diseases|volume=8|issue=5|pages=daakeek|last=Ahmed M.|last2=Musiaan|first2=Nabeel S.|last3=Al-Zaazaai|first3=Ahmed}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Infection with Toxoplasma gondii increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study|date=2020 Jul 30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10317747/|journal=Parasitology|volume=147|issue=13|pages=1577|last=Lin|first=Hsin-An|last2=Chien|first2=Wu-Chien|last3=Huang|first3=Kuo-Yang|last4=Chung|first4=Chi-Hsiang|last5=Chen|first5=Lih-Chyang|last6=Lin|first6=Hsin-Chung|last7=Guo|first7=Jong-Long|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0031182020001183|pmc=10317747|pmid=32729456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Population-based cohort study of Toxoplasma gondii P22 antibody positivity correlation with anxiety|date=2024-08-15|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38729222/|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=359|pages=41–48|last=Yang|first=Lili|last2=Wang|first2=Biyun|last3=Wu|first3=Shuizhen|last4=Yang|first4=Zihan|last5=Xin|first5=Zixuan|last6=Zheng|first6=Shuyu|last7=Zou|first7=Weihao|last8=Zhang|first8=Chi|last9=Chen|first9=Jiating|last10=Peng|first10=Hongjuan|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.043|pmid=38729222|issn=1573-2517}}</ref> and associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Asthma]]'''
| Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref>
|-
| '''Atherosclerosis'''
| Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> Atherosclerosis is linked to the bacteria Helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref>
|-
| '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder'''
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[Streptococcus]], and with the viruses HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].
Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref>
|-
| '''Autism'''
| Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s'''
| Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases are linked to the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref>
|-
| '''Bipolar disorder'''
| Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Cancer]]'''
|Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to microbial causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the microbes currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some microbes proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to microbes that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

* '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref>
* '''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref>
* '''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by Schistosoma helminths.<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref>
* '''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref>
* '''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref>
* '''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref>
* '''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[Helicobacter pylori]], Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref>
* '''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref>
* '''Hodgkin's lymphoma''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref>
* '''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
* '''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref>
* '''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref>
* '''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
* '''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
* '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref>
* '''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
* '''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref>
* '''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.
* '''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with mumps virus.<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref>
* '''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref>
* '''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref>
* '''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref>
* '''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref>
* '''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref>
* '''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]'''
|Myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is primarily associated with two [[enterovirus]]es, namely [[Coxsackie B virus]] and [[echovirus]] (for references see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]); with three [[herpesviruses]], namely [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[cytomegalovirus]] and [[human herpesvirus 6]] (for references see [[list of herpesvirus infection studies]]); and with [[SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref>
More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6:58|access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after Giardia enteritis: clinical characteristics, disability and long-term sickness absence|date=2012-02-08|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22316329/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=12|pages=13|last=Naess|first=Halvor|last2=Nyland|first2=Morten|last3=Hausken|first3=Trygve|last4=Follestad|first4=Inghild|last5=Nyland|first5=Harald I.|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-12-13|pmc=3292445|pmid=22316329|issn=1471-230X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome 5 years after giardiasis: differential diagnoses, characteristics and natural course|date=2013-02-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399438/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=13|pages=28|last=Mørch|first=Kristine|last2=Hanevik|first2=Kurt|last3=Rivenes|first3=Ann C.|last4=Bødtker|first4=Jørn E.|last5=Næss|first5=Halvor|last6=Stubhaug|first6=Bjarte|last7=Wensaas|first7=Knut-Arne|last8=Rortveit|first8=Guri|last9=Eide|first9=Geir E.|last10=Hausken|first10=Trygve|last11=Langeland|first11=Nina|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-13-28|pmc=3598369|pmid=23399438|issn=1471-230X}}</ref> [[Ross River virus]] <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Changing epidemiology of Ross River virus disease in South Australia|date=1996-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8862330/|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=165|issue=6|pages=313–317|last=Selden|first=S. M.|last2=Cameron|first2=A. S.|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124989.x|pmid=8862330|issn=0025-729X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study|date=2006-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16950834/|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=333|issue=7568|pages=575|last=Hickie|first=Ian|last2=Davenport|first2=Tracey|last3=Wakefield|first3=Denis|last4=Vollmer-Conna|first4=Ute|last5=Cameron|first5=Barbara|last6=Vernon|first6=Suzanne D.|last7=Reeves|first7=William C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Andrew|last9=Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group|doi=10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE|pmc=1569956|pmid=16950834|issn=1756-1833}}</ref> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evaluation of Prolonged Fatigue Post–West Nile Virus Infection and Association of Fatigue with Elevated Antiviral and Proinflammatory Cytokines|date=2014-09-01|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4150370/|journal=Viral Immunology|volume=27|issue=7|pages=327–333|last=Garcia|first=Melissa N.|last2=Hause|first2=Anne M.|last3=Walker|first3=Christopher M.|last4=Orange|first4=Jordan S.|last5=Hasbun|first5=Rodrigo|last6=Murray|first6=Kristy O.|doi=10.1089/vim.2014.0035|pmc=4150370|pmid=25062274|issn=0882-8245}}</ref>
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|'''Chronic myocarditis'''
|Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref>
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|'''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease'''
|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref>
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|'''[[Crohn's disease]]'''
|Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus Candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]] and Serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref> Crohn's disease development has been linked to commensal yeast Candida albicans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An immunological link between Candida albicans colonization and Crohn's disease|date=2015-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23855357/|journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology|volume=41|issue=2|pages=135–139|last=Gerard|first=Romain|last2=Sendid|first2=Boualem|last3=Colombel|first3=Jean-Frederic|last4=Poulain|first4=Daniel|last5=Jouault|first5=Thierry|doi=10.3109/1040841X.2013.810587|pmid=23855357|issn=1549-7828}}</ref> One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref> Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref> In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when all three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
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|'''Coronary heart disease'''
|Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref>
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|'''Dementia'''
|Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444" />
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|'''[[Depression]]'''
|Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> Depression is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and psychiatric disorders: a cross-sectional study in China|date=2022 Sep 5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9445102/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=15092|last=Liu|first=Taixiu|last2=Gao|first2=Peng|last3=Bu|first3=Deyun|last4=Liu|first4=Dong|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-16420-y|pmc=9445102|pmid=36064811}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref>

* '''[[depression|Major depressive disorder]]''' is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> as well as [[Bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal | last = Schaller | first = James L. | last2 = Burkland | first2 = Glenn A. | last3 = Langhoff | first3 = P.J. | date = 2007-09-13 | title = Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3 | pages = 54|issn=1531-0132|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060}}</ref> and [[Borrelia]]<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
* '''Seasonal affective disorder''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]'''
|Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[Coxsackie B virus]] can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms.<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref>
Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref>

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family.
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|'''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]'''
|Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus.<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from a Staphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref>
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|'''Dilated cardiomyopathy'''
|Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref>
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|'''Epilepsy'''
|Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) infection of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref>
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|'''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]'''
|Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref>
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|'''[[Hypertension]]'''
|Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref>
|-
|'''Infertility'''
|Infertility is linked to an endometrium infection with [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus variant A (HHV-6A).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref>
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|'''[[Interstitial cystitis]]'''
|The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomaviruses, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> and treatment with the EBV antiviral valacyclovir results in clinical improvement in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary Viral Spectrum in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome and the Clinical Efficacy of Valacyclovir Treatment|date=2024-02-26|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38540138/|journal=Biomedicines|volume=12|issue=3|pages=522|last=Kuo|first=Hann-Chorng|last2=Peng|first2=Chih-Wen|last3=Jiang|first3=Yuan-Hong|last4=Jhang|first4=Jia-Fong|doi=10.3390/biomedicines12030522|pmc=10967905|pmid=38540138|issn=2227-9059}}</ref>
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|'''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]'''
|Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> IBS is linked to protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> IBS in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Lower back pain]]'''
|Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref>
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|'''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]'''
|Systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with the viruses [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal | last = James | first = Judith A. | last2 = Harley | first2 = John B. | last3 = Scofield | first3 = R. Hal | date = Sep 2006 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5 | pages = 462–467|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|issn=1040-8711|pmid=16896283}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref>
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|'''Macular degeneration'''
|Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high cytomegalovirus antibody titers.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref>
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|'''[[Metabolic syndrome]]'''
|Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and Helicobacter pylori. It is also linked to the viruses cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref>
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|'''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'''
|Multiple sclerosis is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus.<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> One study found EBV in the brain tissues of most ME patients.<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2|pages=e0192109|last=Hassani|first=Asma|last2=Corboy|first2=John R.|last3=Al-Salam|first3=Suhail|last4=Khan|first4=Gulfaraz|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> A landmark 2022 longitudinal study provided strong evidence that EBV is the leading cause of multiple sclerosis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Longitudinal analysis reveals high prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus associated with multiple sclerosis|date=2022-01-21|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35025605/|journal=Science|volume=375|issue=6578|pages=296–301|last=Bjornevik|first=Kjetil|last2=Cortese|first2=Marianna|last3=Healy|first3=Brian C.|last4=Kuhle|first4=Jens|last5=Mina|first5=Michael J.|last6=Leng|first6=Yumei|last7=Elledge|first7=Stephen J.|last8=Niebuhr|first8=David W.|last9=Scher|first9=Ann I.|last10=Munger|first10=Kassandra L.|last11=Ascherio|first11=Alberto|language=en|doi=10.1126/science.abj8222|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Multiple sclerosis is also linked to [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref>
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|'''Myocardial infarction'''
|Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of a sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref>
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|'''Myopia'''
|Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough) and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref>
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|'''[[Obesity]]'''
|Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36, adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37 will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> It is known that adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref> Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref>
Obesity is associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium, [[Staphylococcus]], [[Streptococcus]], and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref>
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'''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]'''
|Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with Streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
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'''[[Panic disorder]]'''
|Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" />
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'''[[Parkinson's disease]]'''
|Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]],<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7|pages=302|last=Dourmashkin|first=Robert R.|last2=McCall|first2=Sherman A.|last3=Dourmashkin|first3=Neil|last4=Hannah|first4=Matthew J.|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977|issn=2046-1402}}</ref> Ljungan virus (from the picornavirus family),<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> and [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus.<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> Parkinson's is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref>
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'''Psoriasis'''
|Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref>
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'''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]'''
|Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and Proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[Borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref>
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'''[[Sarcoidosis]]'''
|Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref>
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'''Schizophrenia'''
|Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]].<ref name="pmid12857781" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name=":1" /> Schizophrenia is linked to the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> Borrelia,<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella henselae (the cause of cat scratch disease).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref>
One study found that a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found influenza virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk that the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref>

Individuals experiencing acute psychosis are nearly 11 times more likely to have a urinary tract infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary tract infections in acute psychosis|date=2014-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24499998/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=75|issue=4|pages=379–385|last=Graham|first=Krystle L.|last2=Carson|first2=Chelsea M.|last3=Ezeoke|first3=Amaka|last4=Buckley|first4=Peter F.|last5=Miller|first5=Brian J.|doi=10.4088/JCP.13m08469|pmid=24499998|issn=1555-2101}}</ref>
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'''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]'''
|Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the enterovirus [[Coxsackie B virus|Coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref>
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'''Stroke'''
|Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[Helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> Mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> Stroke is linked to [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus Histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref>
|-
|
'''Tourette syndrome'''
|Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[Streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref>
|-
|'''Valvular heart disease'''
|Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissues.
|-
|
'''Vasculitis'''
|Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.
|}

==Difficulties in determining whether a pathogenic microbe might be causing a disease==
Determining whether a pathogenic microbe plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:
*The time between contracting the infectious microbe and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
*An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
*An infectious microbe may not cause its associated disease in every person.
*Only specific strains of a microbe may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).<ref name="Mechelli2015">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref>
*A given disease may be precipitated by more than one microbe.
*A microbe may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
*A microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
*Some microbes are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect microbes to a disease.
*For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
*A microbe may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the microbe.
In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large body of published studies demonstrating these associations.

==Notable studies==
*2000, [https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2000.0016 Infectious Causation of Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective] - Gregory Cochran, Paul W. Ewald ''et al''
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83689/ The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary] - Forum on Microbial Threats
*2004, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128097/ Virus-induced neurobehavioral disorders: mechanisms and implications] - Keizo Tomonaga
*2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011700/ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/eid/vol4no3/adobe/cassell.pdf Infectious Causes of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer] - Gail H. Cassell
*2006, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291059/ Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases] - Siobhán M O'Connor ''et al''
*2006, [[pmc:1479565/|The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers: it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human micro ecology and the nature of chronic disease]] - Caroline Hadley
*2008, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioral-psychiatric-au Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2010, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioural-psychiatric-a Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2011, [https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=jsbhs The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings] - Wendy Bjerke
*2012, [https://mpkb.org/home/pathogenesis/evidence_bacteria Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens] - Autoimmunity Research Foundation
*2012, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS407997/ Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases] - Steven S Coughlin
*2013, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23935899/ Causal Inference Regarding Infectious Aetiology of Chronic Conditions: A Systematic Review] - Sofia Orrskog ''et al''
*2023, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779437/ Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future] - Robert C Bransfield ''et al''
*2024, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349683/ Viral infections in etiology of mental disorders: a broad analysis of cytokine profile similarities – a narrative review] - Piotr Lorkiewicz ''et al''

==Articles and blogs==
*1999, [https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/0223102a.html Do Germs Cause Cancer?] - Forbes
*1999 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/a-new-germ-theory/377430/ A New Germ Theory] - The Atlantic Monthly Magazine
*1999, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199907/the-infection-connection The Infection Connection] - Psychology Today
*2005, [https://www.alzforum.org/webinars/pathogen-hypothesis-challenging-primacy-genetics-late-onset-alzheimer-disease?liveID=36 Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease] - Alzheimer Research Forum
*2008, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080522155752.htm The Emerging Role Of Infection In Alzheimer's Disease] - Science Daily
*2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230530004102/https://microbeminded.com/2017/11/11/interview-with-evolutionary-biologist-paul-ewald-infection-and-chronic-disease/ Interview With Evolutionary Biologist Paul Ewald] - Amy Proal
*2008, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infected-with-insanity/ Infected with Insanity: Could Microbes Cause Mental Illness?] - Scientific American
*2009, [https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-big-idea-that-might-beat-cancer-and-cut-health-care-costs-by-80-percent The Big Idea That Might Beat Cancer and Cut Health-Care Costs by 80 Percent] - Discover Magazine
*2010, [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/crohns-disease-triggers-may-include-viruses-other-factors Crohn’s Disease Triggers May Include Viruses and Other Factors] - National Institutes of Health
*2012, [https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-an-infection-suddenly-cause-ocd-201202274417 Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?] - Harvard Health Blog
*2012, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-perfectionists-handbook/201202/can-infections-result-in-mental-illness Can Infections Result in Mental Illness?] - Psychology Today
*2013, [https://www.medicaldaily.com/people-hospitalized-infections-are-62-more-likely-develop-mood-disorder-246876 People Hospitalized For Infections Are 62% More Likely To Develop A Mood Disorder] - Medical Daily
*2014, [https://www.livescience.com/43356-chronic-infections-cognitive-decline.html Chronic Infections Linked with Memory Problems Later in Life] - Live Science
*2015, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/05/150521095016.htm Infections can affect your IQ] - Science Daily
*2016, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q9zAG92V9M Toward a Unified, Evolutionary Theory of Cancer] - Paul Ewald: video on the infectious causes of cancer
*2019, [https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/psychiatric-disorders-are-infectious-agents-blame Psychiatric Disorders: Are Infectious Agents to Blame?] - Psychiatric Times
*2023, [https://www.mdedge.com/rheumatology/article/264214/long-covid/infection-related-chronic-illness-new-paradigm-research-and/page/0/1 Infection-related chronic illness: A new paradigm for research and treatment] - MDedge
*2023, [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/22/health/viral-infections-autoimmune-covid.html How Viral Infections Cause Long-Term Health Problems] - New York Tines

==Books==
*2002, [https://www.amazon.com/Plague-Time-Germ-Theory-Disease/dp/0385721846 Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease] - Paul W. Ewald
*2003, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714733_Microcompetition_with_Foreign_DNA_and_the_Origin_of_Chronic_Disease Microcompetition With Foreign DNA And the Origin of Chronic Disease] - Hanan Polansky
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561283/ Microbial Triggers of Chronic Human Illness] - American Society for Microbiology
*2006, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Potbelly-Syndrome-Obesity-Diabetes-Disease/dp/159120058X Potbelly Syndrome: How Common Germs Lead to Obesity, Diabetes and Heart Disease] - Russel Farris and Per Marin
*2008, [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5996250-stealth-germs-in-your-body Stealth Germs in Your Body] - Erno Daniel

==See also==
*[[Virus]]
*[[Pathogen]]s
*[[:Category:Triggers and risk factors|Triggers and risk factors (category)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Lists]]

List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

2025-06-13T23:54:25Z

Hip:Cleaned up text.

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogenic microbes. By this we mean that certain microbes are found in the bodies of patients with the disease much more frequently than in the bodies of healthy people.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Preface|language=en | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/ | date = 2004|publisher=National Academies Press (US) | last = Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats | last2 = Knobler | first2 = Stacey L. | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Siobhán | last4 = Lemon | first4 = Stanley M. | last5 = Najafi | first5 = Marjan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = O'Connor | first = Siobhán M. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Christopher E. | last3 = Hughes | first3 = James M. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16836820/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1051–1057|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> When a microbe such as a [[virus]], [[bacteria|bacterium]], [[fungus]] or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether that microbe might be the cause of the disease, or might in part be causing the disease in conjunction with other causal factors. There are several possible explanations for why a microbe may be associated with a disease:
* The microbe is an "innocent bystander", playing no causal role in the disease, but for some reason, the microbe is more prevalent in the diseased organs in patients with the illness, perhaps because the immune response is compromised in these diseased organs.
* The microbe causes the disease in tandem with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposures).
* The microbe is a singular cause of the disease.
Generally the idea that persistent microbial infections living the tissues and cells of the body might be the underlying cause of many chronic diseases and cancers has not gained widespread acceptance in the medical science community; however, more and more studies are finding microbial links to chronic illnesses.

==Microbes as a cause of chronic diseases and cancers==
Two prominent advocates of the theory that microbes are the cause of numerous chronic diseases and cancers are evolutionary biologist [[wikipedia:Paul_W._Ewald|Professor Paul W. Ewald]], and physicist and anthropologist [[wikipedia:Gregory_Cochran|Dr Gregory Cochran]]. They posit that many chronic diseases and cancers whose etiology is currently unknown will, in the future, likely turn out to be caused by damaging effects from chronic microbial infections living in the body's tissues and cells.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=|title=Plague time: the new germ theory of disease|publisher=Anchor Books|date=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|first=Paul W.|last=Ewald|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease}}</ref><ref name="InfectiousCausation">{{Cite journal|title=Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective|date=2000|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10893730/|journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine|volume=43|issue=3|pages=406–448|last=Cochran|first=G.M.|last2=Ewald|first2=P.W.|last3=Cochran|first3=K.D.|doi=10.1353/pbm.2000.0016|pmid=10893730|issn=0031-5982}}</ref> This viewpoint sharply contrasts with traditional notions of disease etiology, that defective genes, diet, and lifestyle factors underpin disease.

Professor Ewald supports his thesis that germs, not genes, are the primary cause of illnesses with an argument from evolutionary biology: he explains that any faulty genes that cause disease and thus reduce survival and procreation will be rapidly eliminated from the gene pool within a few generations by means of evolutionary natural selection.<ref name="PlagueTime">{{Cite book|title=Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|language=en|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|last=Ewald|first=Paul W.|pages=56}}</ref> Faulty genes are therefore self-extinguishing, and because evolution filters out defective genes so effectively, one would not expect many diseases to result from genetic faults.

Professor Ewald points out that the only faulty genes that are likely to persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, he says the genes that encode for sickle cell disease are maintained and persist down the generations because although these genes are bad, they also protect against malaria, which is a compensating advantage.

Scientists once believed that defective genes would largely explain how most chronic diseases and cancers arise. This belief in part motivated the multi-billion investment in the Human Genome Project, the enterprise to map out all human genes and the entire human genome. But once the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, it soon became apparent that genes do not play a major role in the development of most diseases and cancers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/apr/17/human-genome-genetics-twin-studies|title=The failure of the genome|last=Latham|first=Jonathan|date=2011-04-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> One large meta-analysis found that for the vast majority of chronic diseases, the genetic contribution to the risk of developing the disease is only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191219142739.htm|title=Your DNA is not your destiny -- or a good predictor of your health|date=December 19, 2019|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pafron2019">{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk|date=2019|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31805043/|journal=PloS One|volume=14|issue=12|pages=e0220215|last=Patron|first=Jonas|last2=Serra-Cayuela|first2=Arnau|last3=Han|first3=Beomsoo|last4=Li|first4=Carin|last5=Wishart|first5=David Scott|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220215|pmc=6894795|pmid=31805043|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

Thus the Human Genome Project failed to live up to its hype, and failed to uncover the underlying causes of chronic diseases and cancers. But thanks to this project, we now know genetic factors are not major players in the triggering of disease. So if defective genes cannot explain how chronic diseases and cancers arise, we have to examine other possible causal factors that may be driving disease. When we look at the list of possible causal factors that might underpin disease, that list is short, it consists of: environmental toxins, radiations, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet, and lifestyle factors. There are not many options in that list, which thus brings renewed focus on the idea that infectious agents may be the key players in the development of disease.

Other researchers with an interest in the idea that infectious microbes may be the hidden cause of many chronic diseases and cancers include: Dr Hanan Polansky,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Latent viruses can cause disease by disrupting the competition for the limiting factor p300/CBP|date=2018 Nov 26|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6260892/|journal=Cellular & Molecular Biology Letters|volume=23|pages=56|last=Polansky|first=Hanan|last2=Schwab|first2=Hava|language=en|doi=10.1186/s11658-018-0121-1|pmc=6260892|pmid=30505323}}</ref> Prof Siobhán M. O'Connor,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases - Volume 12, Number 7—July 2006 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/7/06-0037_article|last=O'Connor|first=Siobhán M.|last2=Taylor|first2=Christopher E.|last3=Hughes|first3=James M.|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> Prof Steven S. Coughlin,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases|date=2012 Dec 9|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175921/|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=34|pages=7|last=Coughlin|first=Steven S.|language=en|doi=10.1007/BF03391675|pmc=4175921|pmid=25264396}}</ref> Prof Timothy J. Henrich,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Overview of Infection- Associated Chronic Illnesses|date=2024-04-03|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK602972/|last=National Academies of Sciences|first=Engineering|last2=Division|first2=Health and Medicine|last3=Policy|first3=Board on Health Sciences|last4=Health|first4=Board on Global|last5=Disorders|first5=Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System|last6=Threats|first6=Forum on Microbial|last7=Snair|first7=Megan|last8=Liao|first8=Julie|last9=Ashby|first9=Elizabeth|last10=Biffl|first10=Claire|language=en|publisher=National Academies Press (US)}}</ref> and Prof Wendy Bjerke.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings|date=2011-01-01|url=https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/pthms_fac/2|journal=All PTHMS Faculty Publications|volume=5|issue=1|last=Bjerke|first=Wendy|doi=10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.05}}</ref>

Note, however, that more than one causal factor may be involved in the onset and development of a chronic disease or cancer: an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are simultaneously present. An example of this arises in a mouse model of Crohn's disease, an illness that can be precipitated by a norovirus infection of the intestinal tissues, but only when both a specific gene variant is present, and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine|date=2010-06-25|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997/|journal=Cell|volume=141|issue=7|pages=1135–1145|last=Cadwell|first=Ken|last2=Patel|first2=Khushbu K.|last3=Maloney|first3=Nicole S.|last4=Liu|first4=Ta-Chiang|last5=Ng|first5=Aylwin C.Y.|last6=Storer|first6=Chad E.|last7=Head|first7=Richard D.|last8=Xavier|first8=Ramnik|last9=Stappenbeck|first9=Thaddeus S.|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009|pmc=2908380|pmid=20602997|issn=1097-4172}}</ref> Thus although a microbe may be the primary factor in the onset of diease, its ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon other causal factors.

Microbe-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.<ref name="Kockaya2010">{{Cite journal|title=What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures|date=2010-10-26|url=http://www.scirp.org/Journal/Paperabs.aspx?paperid=2817|journal=Health|volume=2|issue=10|pages=1174–1178|last=Kockaya|first=Guvenc|last2=Wertheimer|first2=Albert|language=en|doi=10.4236/health.2010.210172}}</ref> About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/default/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf|title=Almanac of Chronic Disease|last=Carmona|first=Richard H.|authorlink=|date=2009|website=|publisher=Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|at=Forward|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens==
In the following list of diseases linked to infectious microbes, there is a good possibility that the microbes might be causing the disease, but further research is needed to work out whether these microbes do play a causal role.

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to microbes, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of microbe-associated illnesses.
{| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0"
| style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''Microbes Linked to the Disease'''
|-
| '''Alzheimer's disease'''
| Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>, [[Helicobacter pylori]]<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and Fusobacterium nucleatum.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Periodontal Pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum Exacerbates Alzheimer’s Pathogenesis via Specific Pathways|date=2022 Jun 23|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9260256/|journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience|volume=14|pages=912709|last=Wu|first=Hongle|last2=Qiu|first2=Wei|last3=Zhu|first3=Xiaofang|last4=Li|first4=Xiangfen|last5=Xie|first5=Zhongcong|last6=Carreras|first6=Isabel|last7=Dedeoglu|first7=Alpaslan|last8=Dyke|first8=Thomas Van|last9=Han|first9=Yiping W.|last10=Karimbux|first10=Nadeem|last11=Tu|first11=Qisheng|language=en|doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.912709|pmc=9260256|pmid=35813949}}</ref> Alzheimer's is associated with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref>
Alzheimer's is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1 in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref> Alzheimer's has been linked to [[cytomegalovirus]] infection of the brain, which may enter the brain by travelling along the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alzheimer's disease-associated CD83(+) microglia are linked with increased immunoglobulin G4 and human cytomegalovirus in the gut, vagal nerve, and brain|date=2024-12-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39698934/|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association|last=Readhead|first=Benjamin P.|last2=Mastroeni|first2=Diego F.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi|last4=Sierra|first4=Maria A.|last5=de Ávila|first5=Camila|last6=Jimoh|first6=Tajudeen O.|last7=Haure-Mirande|first7=Jean-Vianney|last8=Atanasoff|first8=Kristina E.|last9=Nolz|first9=Jennifer|last10=Suazo|first10=Crystal|last11=Barton|first11=Nathaniel J.|doi=10.1002/alz.14401|pmid=39698934|issn=1552-5279}}</ref> The viruses [[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal|title=Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|date=Dec 2015|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|last=Pisa|first=Diana|authorlink=|last2=Alonso|first2=Ruth|authorlink2=|last3=Rábano|first3=Alberto|authorlink3=|last4=Rodal|first4=Izaskun|authorlink4=|last5=Carrasco|first5=Luis|authorlink5=|language=en|doi=10.1038/srep15015|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|issn=2045-2322|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]'''
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with retrovirus<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
|-
| '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]'''
| Infection with borrelia species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa.<ref name="pmid7943444" /> In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[Streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. Adolescent girls who had hospital-treated infections, or had less severe infections treated with anti-infective agents, were found to be at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Exposure to Infections in Childhood With Risk of Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls|date=2019 Apr 24|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6487907/|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=76|issue=8|pages=800|last=Breithaupt|first=Lauren|last2=Köhler-Forsberg|first2=Ole|last3=Larsen|first3=Janne Tidselbak|last4=Benros|first4=Michael E.|last5=Thornton|first5=Laura Marie|last6=Bulik|first6=Cynthia M.|last7=Petersen|first7=Liselotte|language=en|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0297|pmc=6487907|pmid=31017632}}</ref> [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" />
|-
| '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]'''
| Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Helicobacter pylori Infection with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|date=10 July 2024|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/9247586|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|last=Li|first=L|last2=Ren|first2=Y|doi=10.1155/2024/9247586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Helicobacter pylori infection association with anxiety in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms in Hadhramout|url=https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/helicobacter-pylori-infection-association-with-anxiety-in-patients-with-upper-gastrointestinal-symptoms-in-hadhramout-27168.html|journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Digestive Diseases|volume=8|issue=5|pages=daakeek|last=Ahmed M.|last2=Musiaan|first2=Nabeel S.|last3=Al-Zaazaai|first3=Ahmed}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Infection with Toxoplasma gondii increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study|date=2020 Jul 30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10317747/|journal=Parasitology|volume=147|issue=13|pages=1577|last=Lin|first=Hsin-An|last2=Chien|first2=Wu-Chien|last3=Huang|first3=Kuo-Yang|last4=Chung|first4=Chi-Hsiang|last5=Chen|first5=Lih-Chyang|last6=Lin|first6=Hsin-Chung|last7=Guo|first7=Jong-Long|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0031182020001183|pmc=10317747|pmid=32729456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Population-based cohort study of Toxoplasma gondii P22 antibody positivity correlation with anxiety|date=2024-08-15|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38729222/|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=359|pages=41–48|last=Yang|first=Lili|last2=Wang|first2=Biyun|last3=Wu|first3=Shuizhen|last4=Yang|first4=Zihan|last5=Xin|first5=Zixuan|last6=Zheng|first6=Shuyu|last7=Zou|first7=Weihao|last8=Zhang|first8=Chi|last9=Chen|first9=Jiating|last10=Peng|first10=Hongjuan|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.043|pmid=38729222|issn=1573-2517}}</ref> and associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Asthma]]'''
| Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref>
|-
| '''Atherosclerosis'''
| Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> Atherosclerosis is linked to the bacteria Helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref>
|-
| '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder'''
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[Streptococcus]], and with the viruses HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].
Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref>
|-
| '''Autism'''
| Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s'''
| Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> Autoimmune diseases are linked to the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref>
|-
| '''Bipolar disorder'''
| Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Cancer]]'''
|Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to microbial causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the microbes currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some microbes proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to microbes that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

* '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref>
* '''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref>
* '''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by Schistosoma helminths.<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref>
* '''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref>
* '''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref>
* '''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref>
* '''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[Helicobacter pylori]], Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref>
* '''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref>
* '''Hodgkin's lymphoma''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref>
* '''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
* '''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref>
* '''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref>
* '''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
* '''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
* '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref>
* '''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
* '''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref>
* '''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.
* '''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with mumps virus.<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref>
* '''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref>
* '''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref>
* '''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref>
* '''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref>
* '''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref>
* '''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]'''
|Myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is primarily associated with two [[enterovirus]]es, namely [[Coxsackie B virus]] and [[echovirus]] (for references see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]); with three [[herpesviruses]], namely [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[cytomegalovirus]] and [[human herpesvirus 6]] (for references see [[list of herpesvirus infection studies]]); and with [[SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref>
More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6:58|access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after Giardia enteritis: clinical characteristics, disability and long-term sickness absence|date=2012-02-08|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22316329/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=12|pages=13|last=Naess|first=Halvor|last2=Nyland|first2=Morten|last3=Hausken|first3=Trygve|last4=Follestad|first4=Inghild|last5=Nyland|first5=Harald I.|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-12-13|pmc=3292445|pmid=22316329|issn=1471-230X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome 5 years after giardiasis: differential diagnoses, characteristics and natural course|date=2013-02-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399438/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=13|pages=28|last=Mørch|first=Kristine|last2=Hanevik|first2=Kurt|last3=Rivenes|first3=Ann C.|last4=Bødtker|first4=Jørn E.|last5=Næss|first5=Halvor|last6=Stubhaug|first6=Bjarte|last7=Wensaas|first7=Knut-Arne|last8=Rortveit|first8=Guri|last9=Eide|first9=Geir E.|last10=Hausken|first10=Trygve|last11=Langeland|first11=Nina|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-13-28|pmc=3598369|pmid=23399438|issn=1471-230X}}</ref> [[Ross River virus]] <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Changing epidemiology of Ross River virus disease in South Australia|date=1996-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8862330/|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=165|issue=6|pages=313–317|last=Selden|first=S. M.|last2=Cameron|first2=A. S.|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124989.x|pmid=8862330|issn=0025-729X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study|date=2006-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16950834/|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=333|issue=7568|pages=575|last=Hickie|first=Ian|last2=Davenport|first2=Tracey|last3=Wakefield|first3=Denis|last4=Vollmer-Conna|first4=Ute|last5=Cameron|first5=Barbara|last6=Vernon|first6=Suzanne D.|last7=Reeves|first7=William C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Andrew|last9=Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group|doi=10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE|pmc=1569956|pmid=16950834|issn=1756-1833}}</ref> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evaluation of Prolonged Fatigue Post–West Nile Virus Infection and Association of Fatigue with Elevated Antiviral and Proinflammatory Cytokines|date=2014-09-01|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4150370/|journal=Viral Immunology|volume=27|issue=7|pages=327–333|last=Garcia|first=Melissa N.|last2=Hause|first2=Anne M.|last3=Walker|first3=Christopher M.|last4=Orange|first4=Jordan S.|last5=Hasbun|first5=Rodrigo|last6=Murray|first6=Kristy O.|doi=10.1089/vim.2014.0035|pmc=4150370|pmid=25062274|issn=0882-8245}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic myocarditis'''
|Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease'''
|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Crohn's disease]]'''
|Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus Candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]] and Serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref> Crohn's disease development has been linked to commensal yeast Candida albicans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An immunological link between Candida albicans colonization and Crohn's disease|date=2015-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23855357/|journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology|volume=41|issue=2|pages=135–139|last=Gerard|first=Romain|last2=Sendid|first2=Boualem|last3=Colombel|first3=Jean-Frederic|last4=Poulain|first4=Daniel|last5=Jouault|first5=Thierry|doi=10.3109/1040841X.2013.810587|pmid=23855357|issn=1549-7828}}</ref> One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref> Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref> In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when all three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
|-
|'''Coronary heart disease'''
|Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dementia'''
|Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444" />
|-
|'''[[Depression]]'''
|Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> Depression is linked to the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and psychiatric disorders: a cross-sectional study in China|date=2022 Sep 5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9445102/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=15092|last=Liu|first=Taixiu|last2=Gao|first2=Peng|last3=Bu|first3=Deyun|last4=Liu|first4=Dong|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-16420-y|pmc=9445102|pmid=36064811}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref>

* '''[[depression|Major depressive disorder]]''' is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> as well as [[Bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal | last = Schaller | first = James L. | last2 = Burkland | first2 = Glenn A. | last3 = Langhoff | first3 = P.J. | date = 2007-09-13 | title = Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3 | pages = 54|issn=1531-0132|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060}}</ref> and [[Borrelia]]<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
* '''Seasonal affective disorder''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]'''
|Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[Coxsackie B virus]] can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms.<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref>
Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref>

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family.
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]'''
|Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus.<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from a Staphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dilated cardiomyopathy'''
|Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref>
|-
|'''Epilepsy'''
|Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) infection of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]'''
|Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref>
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|'''[[Hypertension]]'''
|Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref>
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|'''Infertility'''
|Infertility is associated with an infection of the endometrium with the A variant of [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus (HHV-6A ).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref>
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|'''[[Interstitial cystitis]]'''
|The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomavirus, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> and treatment with the EBV antiviral valacyclovir results in clinical improvement in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary Viral Spectrum in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome and the Clinical Efficacy of Valacyclovir Treatment|date=2024-02-26|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38540138/|journal=Biomedicines|volume=12|issue=3|pages=522|last=Kuo|first=Hann-Chorng|last2=Peng|first2=Chih-Wen|last3=Jiang|first3=Yuan-Hong|last4=Jhang|first4=Jia-Fong|doi=10.3390/biomedicines12030522|pmc=10967905|pmid=38540138|issn=2227-9059}}</ref>
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|'''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]'''
|Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis,<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> the protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> Irritable bowel syndrome in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Lower back pain]]'''
|Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]'''
|Lupus is associated with the viruses [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal | last = James | first = Judith A. | last2 = Harley | first2 = John B. | last3 = Scofield | first3 = R. Hal | date = Sep 2006 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5 | pages = 462–467|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|issn=1040-8711|pmid=16896283}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref>
|-
|'''Macular degeneration'''
|Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high titers of cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Metabolic syndrome]]'''
|Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and Helicobacter pylori, as well as the viruses cytomegalovirus] and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'''
|Multiple sclerosis, a demyelinating disease, is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus.<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> One study found EBV in the brain tissues of most ME patients.<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal|title=Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|date=2018|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2|pages=e0192109|last=Hassani|first=Asma|last2=Corboy|first2=John R.|last3=Al-Salam|first3=Suhail|last4=Khan|first4=Gulfaraz|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> A landmark 2022 longitudinal study provided strong evidence that EBV is the leading cause of multiple sclerosis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Longitudinal analysis reveals high prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus associated with multiple sclerosis|date=2022-01-21|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35025605/|journal=Science|volume=375|issue=6578|pages=296–301|last=Bjornevik|first=Kjetil|last2=Cortese|first2=Marianna|last3=Healy|first3=Brian C.|last4=Kuhle|first4=Jens|last5=Mina|first5=Michael J.|last6=Leng|first6=Yumei|last7=Elledge|first7=Stephen J.|last8=Niebuhr|first8=David W.|last9=Scher|first9=Ann I.|last10=Munger|first10=Kassandra L.|last11=Ascherio|first11=Alberto|language=en|doi=10.1126/science.abj8222|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Multiple sclerosis is also linked to [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref>
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|'''Myocardial infarction'''
|Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are also associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref>
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|'''Myopia'''
|Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough) and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref>
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|'''[[Obesity]]'''
|Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36 (and likewise adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37) will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> And it is known adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref> Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref> Obesity is also associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium, [[Staphylococcus]], [[Streptococcus]], and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref>
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|
'''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]'''
|Obsessive-compulsive disorder is associated with Streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
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'''[[Panic disorder]]'''
|Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" />
|-
|
'''[[Parkinson's disease]]'''
|Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]]/picornavirus<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal | last = Dourmashkin | first = Robert R. | last2 = McCall | first2 = Sherman A. | last3 = Dourmashkin | first3 = Neil | last4 = Hannah | first4 = Matthew J. | date = 2018 | title = Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7 | pages = 302|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|issn=2046-1402|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus,<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> as well as the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref>
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'''Psoriasis'''
|Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref>
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'''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]'''
|Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacterium Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and the bacterium Proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[Borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref>
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'''[[Sarcoidosis]]'''
|Sarcoidosis is associated with mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref>
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'''Schizophrenia'''
|Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> Borrelia species bacteria (Lyme disease),<ref name="pmid7943444" /> Bartonella henselae bacteria (cat scratch disease),<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> and Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name=":1" /> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref>
One study found a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found [[influenza]] virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref>

Individuals experiencing acute psychosis are nearly 11 times more likely to have a urinary tract infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary tract infections in acute psychosis|date=2014-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24499998/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=75|issue=4|pages=379–385|last=Graham|first=Krystle L.|last2=Carson|first2=Chelsea M.|last3=Ezeoke|first3=Amaka|last4=Buckley|first4=Peter F.|last5=Miller|first5=Brian J.|doi=10.4088/JCP.13m08469|pmid=24499998|issn=1555-2101}}</ref>
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'''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]'''
|Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref>
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'''Stroke'''
|Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[Helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> Mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> as well as the virus [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus Histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref>
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'''Tourette syndrome'''
|Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[Streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref>
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|'''Valvular heart disease'''
|Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissue.
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'''Vasculitis'''
|Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.
|}

==Difficulties in determining whether a pathogenic microbe might be causing a disease==
Determining whether a pathogenic microbe plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:
*The time between contracting the infectious microbe and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
*An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
*An infectious microbe may not cause its associated disease in every person.
*Only specific strains of a microbe may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).<ref name="Mechelli2015">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref>
*A given disease may be precipitated by more than one microbe.
*A microbe may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
*A microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
*Some microbes are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect microbes to a disease.
*For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
*A microbe may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the microbe.
In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large body of published studies demonstrating these associations.

==Notable studies==
*2000, [https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2000.0016 Infectious Causation of Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective] - Gregory Cochran, Paul W. Ewald ''et al''
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83689/ The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary] - Forum on Microbial Threats
*2004, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128097/ Virus-induced neurobehavioral disorders: mechanisms and implications] - Keizo Tomonaga
*2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011700/ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/eid/vol4no3/adobe/cassell.pdf Infectious Causes of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer] - Gail H. Cassell
*2006, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291059/ Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases] - Siobhán M O'Connor ''et al''
*2006, [[pmc:1479565/|The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers: it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human micro ecology and the nature of chronic disease]] - Caroline Hadley
*2008, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioral-psychiatric-au Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2010, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioural-psychiatric-a Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2011, [https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=jsbhs The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings] - Wendy Bjerke
*2012, [https://mpkb.org/home/pathogenesis/evidence_bacteria Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens] - Autoimmunity Research Foundation
*2012, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS407997/ Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases] - Steven S Coughlin
*2013, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23935899/ Causal Inference Regarding Infectious Aetiology of Chronic Conditions: A Systematic Review] - Sofia Orrskog ''et al''
*2023, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779437/ Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future] - Robert C Bransfield ''et al''
*2024, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349683/ Viral infections in etiology of mental disorders: a broad analysis of cytokine profile similarities – a narrative review] - Piotr Lorkiewicz ''et al''

==Articles and blogs==
*1999, [https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/0223102a.html Do Germs Cause Cancer?] - Forbes
*1999 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/a-new-germ-theory/377430/ A New Germ Theory] - The Atlantic Monthly Magazine
*1999, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199907/the-infection-connection The Infection Connection] - Psychology Today
*2005, [https://www.alzforum.org/webinars/pathogen-hypothesis-challenging-primacy-genetics-late-onset-alzheimer-disease?liveID=36 Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease] - Alzheimer Research Forum
*2008, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080522155752.htm The Emerging Role Of Infection In Alzheimer's Disease] - Science Daily
*2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230530004102/https://microbeminded.com/2017/11/11/interview-with-evolutionary-biologist-paul-ewald-infection-and-chronic-disease/ Interview With Evolutionary Biologist Paul Ewald] - Amy Proal
*2008, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infected-with-insanity/ Infected with Insanity: Could Microbes Cause Mental Illness?] - Scientific American
*2009, [https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-big-idea-that-might-beat-cancer-and-cut-health-care-costs-by-80-percent The Big Idea That Might Beat Cancer and Cut Health-Care Costs by 80 Percent] - Discover Magazine
*2010, [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/crohns-disease-triggers-may-include-viruses-other-factors Crohn’s Disease Triggers May Include Viruses and Other Factors] - National Institutes of Health
*2012, [https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-an-infection-suddenly-cause-ocd-201202274417 Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?] - Harvard Health Blog
*2012, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-perfectionists-handbook/201202/can-infections-result-in-mental-illness Can Infections Result in Mental Illness?] - Psychology Today
*2013, [https://www.medicaldaily.com/people-hospitalized-infections-are-62-more-likely-develop-mood-disorder-246876 People Hospitalized For Infections Are 62% More Likely To Develop A Mood Disorder] - Medical Daily
*2014, [https://www.livescience.com/43356-chronic-infections-cognitive-decline.html Chronic Infections Linked with Memory Problems Later in Life] - Live Science
*2015, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/05/150521095016.htm Infections can affect your IQ] - Science Daily
*2016, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q9zAG92V9M Toward a Unified, Evolutionary Theory of Cancer] - Paul Ewald: video on the infectious causes of cancer
*2019, [https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/psychiatric-disorders-are-infectious-agents-blame Psychiatric Disorders: Are Infectious Agents to Blame?] - Psychiatric Times
*2023, [https://www.mdedge.com/rheumatology/article/264214/long-covid/infection-related-chronic-illness-new-paradigm-research-and/page/0/1 Infection-related chronic illness: A new paradigm for research and treatment] - MDedge
*2023, [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/22/health/viral-infections-autoimmune-covid.html How Viral Infections Cause Long-Term Health Problems] - New York Tines

==Books==
*2002, [https://www.amazon.com/Plague-Time-Germ-Theory-Disease/dp/0385721846 Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease] - Paul W. Ewald
*2003, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714733_Microcompetition_with_Foreign_DNA_and_the_Origin_of_Chronic_Disease Microcompetition With Foreign DNA And the Origin of Chronic Disease] - Hanan Polansky
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561283/ Microbial Triggers of Chronic Human Illness] - American Society for Microbiology
*2006, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Potbelly-Syndrome-Obesity-Diabetes-Disease/dp/159120058X Potbelly Syndrome: How Common Germs Lead to Obesity, Diabetes and Heart Disease] - Russel Farris and Per Marin
*2008, [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5996250-stealth-germs-in-your-body Stealth Germs in Your Body] - Erno Daniel

==See also==
*[[Virus]]
*[[Pathogen]]s
*[[:Category:Triggers and risk factors|Triggers and risk factors (category)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Lists]]

Staphylococcus aureus

2025-06-09T23:52:54Z

Hip:Added link to Bacillus subtilis thread

'''''Staphylococcus aureus''''' is a [[gram-positive bacteria]] that is a member of the [[Firmicutes]] phylum. It is found in 30% of the human population. Often commensal but it can sometimes causes disease, including infections of the skin and [[endocarditis]]. It also commonly colonizes the human [[gut]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lindberg | first = E. | last2 = Adlerberth | first2 = I. | last3 = Matricardi | first3 = P. | last4 = Bonanno | first4 = C. | last5 = Tripodi | first5 = S. | last6 = Panetta | first6 = V. | last7 = Hesselmar | first7 = B. | last8 = Saalman | first8 = R. | last9 = Aberg | first9 = N. | date = Aug 2011 | title = Effect of lifestyle factors on Staphylococcus aureus gut colonization in Swedish and Italian infants|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21073631|journal=Clinical Microbiology and Infection: The Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases|volume=17|issue=8|pages=1209–1215|doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03426.x|issn=1469-0691|pmid=21073631|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Wold | first=Agnes E. | last2 = Åberg | first2 = Nils | last3 = Strannegård | first3=Inga-Lisa | last4 = Saalman | first4 = Robert | last5 = Hesselmar | first5 = Bill | last6 = Adlerberth | first6 = Ingegerd | last7 = Lindberg | first7 = Erika | date = 2004-02-01 | title = High Rate of Transfer of Staphylococcus aureus from Parental Skin to Infant Gut Flora|url=https://jcm.asm.org/content/42/2/530|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|language=en|volume=42|issue=2|pages=530–534|doi=10.1128/JCM.42.2.530-534.2004|issn=0095-1137|pmid=14766812}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lina | first=Gerard | last2 = Wold | first2 = Agnes E. | last3 = Adlerberth | first3 = Ingegerd | last4 = Åberg | first4 = Nils | last5 = Strannegård | first5 = Inga-Lisa | last6 = Saalman | first6 = Robert | last7 = Hesselmar | first7 = Bill | last8 = Lindberg | first8 = Erika | last9 = Vandenesch | first9 = François | date = 2011-09-01 | title = Adhesin and Superantigen Genes and the Capacity of Staphylococcus aureus to Colonize the Infantile Gut|url=https://academic.oup.com/jid/article/204/5/714/797466|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=204|issue=5 | pages = 714–721|doi=10.1093/infdis/jir388|issn=0022-1899}}</ref> and can also colonize the nose.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Acton | first= D. S. | last2 = Tempelmans Plat-Sinnige | first2 = M.J. | last3 = van Wamel | first3 = W. | last4 = de Groot | first4 = N. | last5 = van Belkum | first5 = A. | date = 2008-08-08 | title = Intestinal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: how does its frequency compare with that of nasal carriage and what is its clinical impact?|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-008-0602-7|journal=European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=28|issue=2|pages=115|doi=10.1007/s10096-008-0602-7|issn=1435-4373}}</ref><ref>http://scienceblogs.com/mikethemadbiologist/2007/10/25/staphylococcus-aureus-dont-pic/</ref>

==Possible biochemical effects==

''S. aureus'' produce [[coagulase]], an enzyme that causes blood clotting.

The presence of ''S. aureus'' in a model of the human gut decreased the production of [[butyrate]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Clarke | first = Simon R. | last2 = Gibson | first2 = Glenn R. | last3 = Costabile | first3 = Adele | last4 = Sannasiddappa | first4 = Thippeswamy H. | date = 2011-08-09 | title = The Influence of Staphylococcus aureus on Gut Microbial Ecology in an In Vitro Continuous Culture Human Colonic Model System|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0023227|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=6|issue=8| pages = e23227|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0023227|issn=1932-6203|pmc = 3153491|pmid=21858036}}</ref>

Staphyloccocus bacteria produce [[alpha toxin]].{{Citation needed}}

==In chronic disease==

Higher levels of ''S. aureus'' was found in the mouths of patients with [[Sj%C3%B6gren's syndrome]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Almståhl | first = A. | last2 = Wikström | first2 = M. | last3 = Kroneld | first3=U. | date = May 2001 | title = Microflora in oral ecosystems in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11361180|journal=The Journal of Rheumatology|volume=28|issue=5|pages=1007–1013|issn=0315-162X|pmid=11361180|quote=|via=}}</ref> A higher prevalence was also found in patients with [[irritable bowel syndrome]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Rinttilä | first = Teemu | last2 = Lyra | first2 = Anna | last3 = Krogius-Kurikka | first3 = Lotta | last4 = Palva | first4 = Airi | date = 2011-04-26 | title = Real-time PCR analysis of enteric pathogens from fecal samples of irritable bowel syndrome subjects|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21518462|journal=Gut Pathogens|volume=3|issue=1 | pages = 6|doi=10.1186/1757-4749-3-6|issn=1757-4749|pmc=3111350|pmid=21518462|quote=|via=}}</ref> and is implicated in [[traumatic brain injury]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Sjögren | first=A.M. | last2 = Thelestam | first2 = M. | last3 = Blomqvist | first3 = L. | last4 = Lindå | first4 = H. | last5 = Remahl | first5 = S. | last6 = Risling | first6 = M. | date = 1991-09-20 | title = Extravasation of staphylococcal alpha-toxin in normal and injured CNS regions lacking blood-brain barrier function: observations after ventral root replantation|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1794101|journal=Brain Research|volume=559|issue=2|pages=276–282|issn=0006-8993|pmid=1794101}}</ref>

==Probiotics==

Several probiotics were found to reduce adhesion of ''S. aureus'' to the human gut including ''[[Lactobacillus rhamnosus]] GG'', ''[[Lactococcus lactis]] subsp. lactis'' and ''[[Propionibacterium freudenreichii]] subsp. shermanii''.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Vesterlund | first = Satu | last2 = Karp | first2 = Matti | last3 = Salminen | first3=Seppo | last4 = Ouwehand | first4 = Arthur C. | date = 2006 | title=Staphylococcus aureus adheres to human intestinal mucus but can be displaced by certain lactic acid bacteria|url=https://mic.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/micro/10.1099/mic.0.28522-0|journal=Microbiology|volume=152|issue=6|pages=1819–1826|doi=10.1099/mic.0.28522-0}}</ref>

The '''Bacillus subtilis''' probiotic MB40 or HU58 was found in a study<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Probiotic for pathogen-specific Staphylococcus aureus decolonisation in Thailand: a phase 2, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial|date=2023-02|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9932624/|journal=The Lancet Microbe|volume=4|issue=2|pages=e75–e83|last=Piewngam|first=Pipat|last2=Khongthong|first2=Sunisa|last3=Roekngam|first3=Natthrit|last4=Theapparat|first4=Yongyuth|last5=Sunpaweravong|first5=Somkiat|last6=Faroongsarng|first6=Damrongsak|last7=Otto|first7=Michael|language=en|doi=10.1016/S2666-5247(22)00322-6|issn=2666-5247}}</ref> to reduce Staphylococcus levels in the gut were by 96.8%, which corresponds to a 31-fold reduction. In the nose, Staphylococcus levels were reduced by 65.4%, which translates to nearly a 3-fold reduction. More information in [https://forums.phoenixrising.me/threads/bacillus-subtilis-probiotic-greatly-reduces-staphylococcus-populations-in-the-gut-and-the-nasopharynx.88380/ this thread].

==Herbs==

Herbs shown to inhibit ''S. aureus'' include [[Bacopa monnieri]],<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Bacopa+monniera+Staphylococcus</ref> [[green tea]] extracts,<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Bashir | first = S. | last2 = Khan | first2 = B.M. | last3 = Babar | first3=M. | last4 = Andleeb | first4 = S. | last5 = Hafeez | first5 = M. | last6 = Ali | first6 = S. | last7 = Khan | first7 = M.F. | date = Jul 2014 | title = Assessment of Bioautography and Spot Screening of TLC of Green Tea (Camellia) Plant Extracts as Antibacterial and Antioxidant Agents|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25284935|journal=Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=76|issue=4|pages=364–370|issn=0250-474X|pmc=4171874|pmid=25284935|quote=|via=}}</ref> [[turmeric]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Afrose | first = R. | last2 = Saha | first2 = S. K. | last3 = Banu | first3 = L.A. | last4 = Ahmed | first4 = A. U. | last5 = Shahidullah | first5 = A.S. | last6 = Gani | first6 = A. | last7 = Sultana | first7 = S. | last8 = Kabir | first8 = M.R. | last9 = Ali | first9 = M.Y. | date=Jul 2015 | title = Antibacterial Effect of Curcuma longa (Turmeric) Against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26329948|journal=Mymensingh medical journal: MMJ|volume=24|issue=3|pages=506–515|issn=1022-4742|pmid=26329948}}</ref> [[milk thistle]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Kang | first = Hyun-Kyung | last2 = Kim | first2 = Hye-Young | last3 = Cha | first3 = Jeong-Dan | date = Nov 2011 | title = Synergistic effects between silibinin and antibiotics on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from clinical specimens|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21491604|journal=Biotechnology Journal|volume=6|issue=11|pages=1397–1408|doi=10.1002/biot.201000422|issn=1860-7314|pmid=21491604}}</ref> [[nigella]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lairungruang | first = Kriyapa | author-link = | last2 = Itharat | first2 = Arunporn | authorlink2 = | last3 = Panthong | first3 = Sumalee | date = Aug 2014 | title = Antimicrobial activity of extracts from a Thai traditional remedy called Kabpi for oral and throat infection and its plant components|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25518302|journal=Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand = Chotmaihet Thangphaet|volume=97 |issue= Supp 8|pages=S108–115|issn=0125-2208|pmid=25518302|quote=|via=}}</ref> [[cinnamon]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Urbaniak | first = Anna | last2 = Głowacka | first2 = Anna | last3 = Kowalczyk | first3 = Edward | last4 = Lysakowska | first4 = Monika | last5 = Sienkiewicz | first5 = Monika | date = 2014 | title = [The antibacterial activity of cinnamon oil on the selected gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria]|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25369660|journal=Medycyna Doswiadczalna I Mikrobiologia|volume=66|issue=2|pages=131–141|issn=0025-8601|pmid=25369660}}</ref> and [[shrubby sophora]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Li | last2 = Cheng | first2 = Xiaofang | last3 = Shi | first3 = Wenyuan | last4 = Lu | first4 = Qingyi | last5 = Go | first5 = Vay Liang | last6 = Heber | first6 = David | last7 = Ma | first7 = Lili | date = Jul 2005 | title = Inhibition of Growth of Streptococcus mutans, Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci by Kurarinone, a Bioactive Flavonoid Isolated from Sophora flavescens|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1169149/|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=43|issue=7|pages=3574–3575|doi=10.1128/JCM.43.7.3574-3575.2005|issn=0095-1137|pmc=1169149|pmid=16000511|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Fakhimi | first = Ali | last2 = Iranshahi | first2 = Mehrdad | last3 = Emami | first3 = Seyed Ahmad | last4 = Amin-Ar-Ramimeh | first4 = Esam | last5 = Zarrini | first5 = Gholamreza | last6 = Shahverdi | first6 = Ahmad Reza | date = Sep 2006 | title = Sophoraflavanone G from sophora pachycarpa enhanced the antibacterial activity of gentamycin against Staphylococcus aureus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17137127|journal=Zeitschrift Fur Naturforschung. C, Journal of Biosciences|volume=61|issue=9-10 | pages = 769–772|issn=0939-5075|pmid=17137127}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Yamaki | first = Masae | last2 = Kashihara | first2 = Mikiko | last3 = Takagi | first3 = Shuzo | date = 1990 | title = Activity of Ku Shen compounds against Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus mutans|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ptr.2650040607|journal=Phytotherapy Research|language=en|volume=4|issue=6|pages=235–236|doi=10.1002/ptr.2650040607|issn=1099-1573}}</ref> This may suggest a role for [[equilibrant]] and [[protandim]] in the control of ''S. aureus''.

[[Mastic gum]] also has anti-''S. aureus'' activity.<ref>[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0964830595001034 Antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of mastic gum (Pistacia lentiscus var. chia) on Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria in broth and in Model Food System], Chrysoula C. Tassou, a, G.J.E. Nychasb, International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation</ref>

==See also==

*[[Staphylococcal vaccine]]

==Learn more==

*"[https://cfsremission.wordpress.com/2016/02/01/staphylococcus-aureus-the-cfs-maintainer/ Staphylococcus aureus – the CFS maintainer?]" CFS remission blog, February 1, 2016

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Bacteria]]

Staphylococcus aureus

2025-06-09T23:51:33Z

Hip:Added info about Bacillus subtilis probiotic

'''''Staphylococcus aureus''''' is a [[gram-positive bacteria]] that is a member of the [[Firmicutes]] phylum. It is found in 30% of the human population. Often commensal but it can sometimes causes disease, including infections of the skin and [[endocarditis]]. It also commonly colonizes the human [[gut]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lindberg | first = E. | last2 = Adlerberth | first2 = I. | last3 = Matricardi | first3 = P. | last4 = Bonanno | first4 = C. | last5 = Tripodi | first5 = S. | last6 = Panetta | first6 = V. | last7 = Hesselmar | first7 = B. | last8 = Saalman | first8 = R. | last9 = Aberg | first9 = N. | date = Aug 2011 | title = Effect of lifestyle factors on Staphylococcus aureus gut colonization in Swedish and Italian infants|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21073631|journal=Clinical Microbiology and Infection: The Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases|volume=17|issue=8|pages=1209–1215|doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03426.x|issn=1469-0691|pmid=21073631|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Wold | first=Agnes E. | last2 = Åberg | first2 = Nils | last3 = Strannegård | first3=Inga-Lisa | last4 = Saalman | first4 = Robert | last5 = Hesselmar | first5 = Bill | last6 = Adlerberth | first6 = Ingegerd | last7 = Lindberg | first7 = Erika | date = 2004-02-01 | title = High Rate of Transfer of Staphylococcus aureus from Parental Skin to Infant Gut Flora|url=https://jcm.asm.org/content/42/2/530|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|language=en|volume=42|issue=2|pages=530–534|doi=10.1128/JCM.42.2.530-534.2004|issn=0095-1137|pmid=14766812}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lina | first=Gerard | last2 = Wold | first2 = Agnes E. | last3 = Adlerberth | first3 = Ingegerd | last4 = Åberg | first4 = Nils | last5 = Strannegård | first5 = Inga-Lisa | last6 = Saalman | first6 = Robert | last7 = Hesselmar | first7 = Bill | last8 = Lindberg | first8 = Erika | last9 = Vandenesch | first9 = François | date = 2011-09-01 | title = Adhesin and Superantigen Genes and the Capacity of Staphylococcus aureus to Colonize the Infantile Gut|url=https://academic.oup.com/jid/article/204/5/714/797466|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=204|issue=5 | pages = 714–721|doi=10.1093/infdis/jir388|issn=0022-1899}}</ref> and can also colonize the nose.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Acton | first= D. S. | last2 = Tempelmans Plat-Sinnige | first2 = M.J. | last3 = van Wamel | first3 = W. | last4 = de Groot | first4 = N. | last5 = van Belkum | first5 = A. | date = 2008-08-08 | title = Intestinal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: how does its frequency compare with that of nasal carriage and what is its clinical impact?|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-008-0602-7|journal=European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=28|issue=2|pages=115|doi=10.1007/s10096-008-0602-7|issn=1435-4373}}</ref><ref>http://scienceblogs.com/mikethemadbiologist/2007/10/25/staphylococcus-aureus-dont-pic/</ref>

==Possible biochemical effects==

''S. aureus'' produce [[coagulase]], an enzyme that causes blood clotting.

The presence of ''S. aureus'' in a model of the human gut decreased the production of [[butyrate]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Clarke | first = Simon R. | last2 = Gibson | first2 = Glenn R. | last3 = Costabile | first3 = Adele | last4 = Sannasiddappa | first4 = Thippeswamy H. | date = 2011-08-09 | title = The Influence of Staphylococcus aureus on Gut Microbial Ecology in an In Vitro Continuous Culture Human Colonic Model System|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0023227|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=6|issue=8| pages = e23227|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0023227|issn=1932-6203|pmc = 3153491|pmid=21858036}}</ref>

Staphyloccocus bacteria produce [[alpha toxin]].{{Citation needed}}

==In chronic disease==

Higher levels of ''S. aureus'' was found in the mouths of patients with [[Sj%C3%B6gren's syndrome]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Almståhl | first = A. | last2 = Wikström | first2 = M. | last3 = Kroneld | first3=U. | date = May 2001 | title = Microflora in oral ecosystems in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11361180|journal=The Journal of Rheumatology|volume=28|issue=5|pages=1007–1013|issn=0315-162X|pmid=11361180|quote=|via=}}</ref> A higher prevalence was also found in patients with [[irritable bowel syndrome]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Rinttilä | first = Teemu | last2 = Lyra | first2 = Anna | last3 = Krogius-Kurikka | first3 = Lotta | last4 = Palva | first4 = Airi | date = 2011-04-26 | title = Real-time PCR analysis of enteric pathogens from fecal samples of irritable bowel syndrome subjects|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21518462|journal=Gut Pathogens|volume=3|issue=1 | pages = 6|doi=10.1186/1757-4749-3-6|issn=1757-4749|pmc=3111350|pmid=21518462|quote=|via=}}</ref> and is implicated in [[traumatic brain injury]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Sjögren | first=A.M. | last2 = Thelestam | first2 = M. | last3 = Blomqvist | first3 = L. | last4 = Lindå | first4 = H. | last5 = Remahl | first5 = S. | last6 = Risling | first6 = M. | date = 1991-09-20 | title = Extravasation of staphylococcal alpha-toxin in normal and injured CNS regions lacking blood-brain barrier function: observations after ventral root replantation|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1794101|journal=Brain Research|volume=559|issue=2|pages=276–282|issn=0006-8993|pmid=1794101}}</ref>

==Probiotics==

Several probiotics were found to reduce adhesion of ''S. aureus'' to the human gut including ''[[Lactobacillus rhamnosus]] GG'', ''[[Lactococcus lactis]] subsp. lactis'' and ''[[Propionibacterium freudenreichii]] subsp. shermanii''.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Vesterlund | first = Satu | last2 = Karp | first2 = Matti | last3 = Salminen | first3=Seppo | last4 = Ouwehand | first4 = Arthur C. | date = 2006 | title=Staphylococcus aureus adheres to human intestinal mucus but can be displaced by certain lactic acid bacteria|url=https://mic.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/micro/10.1099/mic.0.28522-0|journal=Microbiology|volume=152|issue=6|pages=1819–1826|doi=10.1099/mic.0.28522-0}}</ref>

The Bacillus subtilis probiotic MB40 or HU58 was found in a study<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Probiotic for pathogen-specific Staphylococcus aureus decolonisation in Thailand: a phase 2, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial|date=2023-02|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9932624/|journal=The Lancet Microbe|volume=4|issue=2|pages=e75–e83|last=Piewngam|first=Pipat|last2=Khongthong|first2=Sunisa|last3=Roekngam|first3=Natthrit|last4=Theapparat|first4=Yongyuth|last5=Sunpaweravong|first5=Somkiat|last6=Faroongsarng|first6=Damrongsak|last7=Otto|first7=Michael|language=en|doi=10.1016/S2666-5247(22)00322-6|issn=2666-5247}}</ref> to reduce Staphylococcus levels in the gut were by 96.8%, which corresponds to a 31-fold reduction. In the nose, Staphylococcus levels were reduced by 65.4%, which translates to nearly a 3-fold reduction.

==Herbs==

Herbs shown to inhibit ''S. aureus'' include [[Bacopa monnieri]],<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Bacopa+monniera+Staphylococcus</ref> [[green tea]] extracts,<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Bashir | first = S. | last2 = Khan | first2 = B.M. | last3 = Babar | first3=M. | last4 = Andleeb | first4 = S. | last5 = Hafeez | first5 = M. | last6 = Ali | first6 = S. | last7 = Khan | first7 = M.F. | date = Jul 2014 | title = Assessment of Bioautography and Spot Screening of TLC of Green Tea (Camellia) Plant Extracts as Antibacterial and Antioxidant Agents|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25284935|journal=Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=76|issue=4|pages=364–370|issn=0250-474X|pmc=4171874|pmid=25284935|quote=|via=}}</ref> [[turmeric]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Afrose | first = R. | last2 = Saha | first2 = S. K. | last3 = Banu | first3 = L.A. | last4 = Ahmed | first4 = A. U. | last5 = Shahidullah | first5 = A.S. | last6 = Gani | first6 = A. | last7 = Sultana | first7 = S. | last8 = Kabir | first8 = M.R. | last9 = Ali | first9 = M.Y. | date=Jul 2015 | title = Antibacterial Effect of Curcuma longa (Turmeric) Against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26329948|journal=Mymensingh medical journal: MMJ|volume=24|issue=3|pages=506–515|issn=1022-4742|pmid=26329948}}</ref> [[milk thistle]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Kang | first = Hyun-Kyung | last2 = Kim | first2 = Hye-Young | last3 = Cha | first3 = Jeong-Dan | date = Nov 2011 | title = Synergistic effects between silibinin and antibiotics on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from clinical specimens|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21491604|journal=Biotechnology Journal|volume=6|issue=11|pages=1397–1408|doi=10.1002/biot.201000422|issn=1860-7314|pmid=21491604}}</ref> [[nigella]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lairungruang | first = Kriyapa | author-link = | last2 = Itharat | first2 = Arunporn | authorlink2 = | last3 = Panthong | first3 = Sumalee | date = Aug 2014 | title = Antimicrobial activity of extracts from a Thai traditional remedy called Kabpi for oral and throat infection and its plant components|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25518302|journal=Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand = Chotmaihet Thangphaet|volume=97 |issue= Supp 8|pages=S108–115|issn=0125-2208|pmid=25518302|quote=|via=}}</ref> [[cinnamon]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Urbaniak | first = Anna | last2 = Głowacka | first2 = Anna | last3 = Kowalczyk | first3 = Edward | last4 = Lysakowska | first4 = Monika | last5 = Sienkiewicz | first5 = Monika | date = 2014 | title = [The antibacterial activity of cinnamon oil on the selected gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria]|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25369660|journal=Medycyna Doswiadczalna I Mikrobiologia|volume=66|issue=2|pages=131–141|issn=0025-8601|pmid=25369660}}</ref> and [[shrubby sophora]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Li | last2 = Cheng | first2 = Xiaofang | last3 = Shi | first3 = Wenyuan | last4 = Lu | first4 = Qingyi | last5 = Go | first5 = Vay Liang | last6 = Heber | first6 = David | last7 = Ma | first7 = Lili | date = Jul 2005 | title = Inhibition of Growth of Streptococcus mutans, Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci by Kurarinone, a Bioactive Flavonoid Isolated from Sophora flavescens|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1169149/|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=43|issue=7|pages=3574–3575|doi=10.1128/JCM.43.7.3574-3575.2005|issn=0095-1137|pmc=1169149|pmid=16000511|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Fakhimi | first = Ali | last2 = Iranshahi | first2 = Mehrdad | last3 = Emami | first3 = Seyed Ahmad | last4 = Amin-Ar-Ramimeh | first4 = Esam | last5 = Zarrini | first5 = Gholamreza | last6 = Shahverdi | first6 = Ahmad Reza | date = Sep 2006 | title = Sophoraflavanone G from sophora pachycarpa enhanced the antibacterial activity of gentamycin against Staphylococcus aureus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17137127|journal=Zeitschrift Fur Naturforschung. C, Journal of Biosciences|volume=61|issue=9-10 | pages = 769–772|issn=0939-5075|pmid=17137127}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Yamaki | first = Masae | last2 = Kashihara | first2 = Mikiko | last3 = Takagi | first3 = Shuzo | date = 1990 | title = Activity of Ku Shen compounds against Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus mutans|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ptr.2650040607|journal=Phytotherapy Research|language=en|volume=4|issue=6|pages=235–236|doi=10.1002/ptr.2650040607|issn=1099-1573}}</ref> This may suggest a role for [[equilibrant]] and [[protandim]] in the control of ''S. aureus''.

[[Mastic gum]] also has anti-''S. aureus'' activity.<ref>[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0964830595001034 Antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of mastic gum (Pistacia lentiscus var. chia) on Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria in broth and in Model Food System], Chrysoula C. Tassou, a, G.J.E. Nychasb, International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation</ref>

==See also==

*[[Staphylococcal vaccine]]

==Learn more==

*"[https://cfsremission.wordpress.com/2016/02/01/staphylococcus-aureus-the-cfs-maintainer/ Staphylococcus aureus – the CFS maintainer?]" CFS remission blog, February 1, 2016

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Bacteria]]

Carl-Gerhard Gottfries

2025-06-09T23:47:55Z

Hip:Added link to Gottfries clinic archived page

[[File:Carl-Gerhard Gottfries.png|200px|thumb|right|Source:Erik Nilsson]]
'''Carl-Gerhard Gottfries''', MD, PhD, is a Swedish professor, [[ME/CFS]] doctor, and founder of the [[Gottfries Clinic]], Mölndal, [[Sweden]]. After developing [[chronic fatigue syndrome]] following a case of the flu, he discovered that monthly injections of a staphylococcus aureus vaccine boosted his immune system, successfully allowing him to return to work. He has continued using a staphylococcus vaccine injection every month for over fifty years.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.healthrising.org/blog/2015/11/21/gottfries-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-story/ | title = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries: A Swedish Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Story | last = | first = | date = | website = | archive-url = | archive-date = |url-status = | access-date=}}</ref>

==Clinic==
[https://web.archive.org/web/20200525041507/http://www.gottfriesclinic.se/in-english/gottfries-clinic/ Gottfries Clinic] AB (Gottfriesmottagningen), was previously financed through the health-care system, but now is privately operated. It is a specialty clinic for the (1) evaluation, diagnosis and treatment of patients with [[fibromyalgia]] and [[ME/CFS|myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome]] (ME/CFS), chronic fatigue and widespread muscular pain, and (2) research for developing and treatment for such patients. Located at Krokslätts Torg 5, Mölndal, Sweden.<ref>http://www.gottfriesclinic.se/in-english/gottfries-clinic/</ref>

==2017 Ramsay Award==
A team comprised of Dr. [[Jonas Bergquist]] and Dr. [[Jonas Blomberg]] of Uppsala University and Dr. Carl-Gerhard Gottfries and Dr. [[Olof Zachrisson]] of the Gottfries Clinic were awarded a 2017 [[Ramsay Award]] grant from the [[Solve ME/CFS Initiative]] for research into [[biomarker]]s for initiation (infection) and metabolic derangement in [[ME/CFS]].<ref>http://solvecfs.org/2017-ramsay-award-program-results/</ref>

==Talks and interviews==

*Sept 2014, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCF_RYCnHW4 Interview with Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries, Part 1: Background and Vaccine]
*Sept 2014, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUlXZ8qmNrI Interview with Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries, Part 2: Experience and The Clinic]
*Sept 2014, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q0wUSkK4Z20 Interview with Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries, Part 3: The Clinic and Urgent Needs]
*Sept 2014, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kyyc6U1M7pY Interview with Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries, Part 4: Continued Research]

==Notable studies==

*1997, Increased concentrations of homocysteine in the cerebrospinal fluid in patients with [[fibromyalgia]] and [[chronic fatigue syndrome]]<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Regland | first = B | last2 = Andersson | first2 = M | last3 = Abrahamsson | first3 = L | last4 = Bagby | first4 = J | last5 = Dyrehag | first5 = LE | last6 = Gottfries | first6 = CG | author-link6 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | date = 1997 | title = Increased concentrations of homocysteine in the cerebrospinal fluid in patients with fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9310111 | journal = Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 301-7|pmid=9310111|via=}}</ref> [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9310111 (Abstract)]
*1998, Effects of [[Staphylococcus vaccine|staphylococcus toxoid vaccine]] on pain and fatigue in patients with [[fibromyalgia]]/[[chronic fatigue syndrome]]<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Andersson | first = M | last2 = Bagby | first2 = JR | last3 = Dyrehag | first3 = L | last4 = Gottfries | first4 = C | author-link4 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | date = 1998 | title = Effects of staphylococcus toxoid vaccine on pain and fatigue in patients with fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10700309 | journal = European Journal of Pain | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 133-142|pmid=10700309|via=}}</ref> [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10700309 (Abstract)]
*2000, Nickel [[Allergy]] is Found in a Majority of Women with [[Chronic Fatigue Syndrome]] and Muscle Pain - and may be Triggered by Cigarette Smoke and Dietary Nickel Intake <ref>{{Cite journal | last = Regland | first = Bjorn | last2 = Zachrisson | first2 = Olof | author-link2 = Olof Zachrisson | last3 = Stejskal | first3 = Vera | last4 = Gottfries | first4 = Carl Gerhard | author-link4 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | date = 2000 | title = Immunotherapy of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Therapeutic Interventions Aimed at Modulating the Th1/Th2 Cytokine Expression Balance | url =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J092v08n01_04 | journal = Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 57-65|doi=10.1300/J092v08n01_04|via=}}</ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J092v08n01_04 (Abstract)]
*2002, A rating scale for fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome (the FibroFatigue scale)<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Zachrisson | first = O | author-link = Olof Zachrisson | last2 = Regland | first2 = B | last3 = Jahreskog | first3 = M | last4 = Kron | first4 = M | last5 = Gottfries | first5 = CG | author-link5 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | date = Jun 2002 | title = A rating scale for fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome (the FibroFatigue scale) | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12069875 | journal = J Psychosomatic Research | volume = 52 | issue = 6 | pages = 501-9|pmid=12069875|via=}}</ref> [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12069875 (Abstract)]
*2004, Immune modulation with a staphylococcal preparation in fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome: relation between antibody levels and clinical improvement<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Zachrisson | first = O | author-link = Olof Zachrisson | last2 = Colque-Navarro | first2 = P | last3 = Gottfries | first3 = CG | author-link3 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | last4 = Regland | first4 = B | last5 = Möllby | first5 = R | date = Feb 2004 | title = Immune modulation with a staphylococcal preparation in fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome: relation between antibody levels and clinical improvement | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14735403 | journal = European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Disease | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 98-105|doi=10.1007/s10096-003-1062-8|via=}}</ref> [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14735403 (Abstract)]
*2006, Long-Term Treatment with a [[Staphylococcal vaccine|''Staphylococcus'' Toxoid Vaccine]] in Patients with [[Fibromyalgia]] and [[Chronic Fatigue Syndrome]]<ref>Carl-Gerhard Gottfries, Ove Häger, Björn Regland & [[Olof Zachrisson]]. (2006). Long-Term Treatment with a Staphylococcus Toxoid Vaccine in Patients with Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. ''Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome'', Vol. 13, Iss. 4, pp. 29-40. DOI:10.1300/J092v13n04_04</ref> [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J092v13n04_04 (Abstract)]
*2011, Murine gammaretrovirus group G3 was not found in Swedish patients with [[ME/CFS|myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome]] and [[fibromyalgia]]<ref name="Elfaitouri, 2011" /> [http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0024602 (Full Text)]
*2012, No evidence for [[Xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus|xenotropic murine leukemia-related virus]] infection in [[Sweden]] using internally controlled multiepitope suspension array serology<ref name="Blomberg, 2012" /> [http://cvi.asm.org/content/19/9/1399.long (Full Text)]
*2013, Epitopes of Microbial and Human [[Heat shock protein|Heat Shock Protein]] 60 and Their Recognition in [[Myalgic Encephalomyelitis]]<ref name="Elfaitouri, 2013" /> [http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0081155 (Full Text)]
*2015, Response to [[Vitamin B12]] and [[Folic acid|Folic Acid]] in [[Myalgic Encephalomyelitis]] and [[Fibromyalgia]]<ref name="Regland, 2015" />[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4406448/ (Full Text)]
*2018, Infection Elicited [[Autoimmune disease|Autoimmunity]] and [[ME/CFS|Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome]]: An Explanatory Model<ref name="Blomberg, 2018" /> [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5818468/ (Full Text)]
*2018, A randomised controlled trial of the monoaminergic stabiliser (-)-OSU6162 in treatment of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Nilsson | first = MKL | last2 = Zachrisson | first2 = O | author-link2 = Olof Zachrisson | last3 = Gottfries | first3 = C | author-link3 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | last4 = Matousek | first4 = M | last5 = Peilot | first5 = B | last6 = Forsmark | first6 = S | last7 = Schuit | first7 = RC | last8 = Carlsson | first8 = ML | last9 = Kloberg | first9 = A | last10 = Carlsson | first10 = A | date = Jun 2018 | title = A randomised controlled trial of the monoaminergic stabiliser (-)-OSU6162 in treatment of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29212562 | journal = Acta Neuropsychiatrica | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 148-157|doi=10.1017/neu.2017.35|pmid=29212562}}</ref> [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29212562 (Abstract)]
*2019, Antibodies to Human [[Herpesviruses]] in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Patients<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Blomberg | first = Jonas | author-link = Jonas Blomberg | last2 = Rizwan | first2 = Muhammad | author-link2 = | last3 = Böhlin-Wiener | first3 = Agnes | author-link3 = | last4 = Elfaitouri | first4 = Amal | author-link4 = | last5 = Julin | first5 = Per | author-link5 = | last6 = Zachrisson | first6 = Olof | author-link6 = Olof Zachrisson | last7 = Rosén | first7 = Anders | last8 = Gottfries | first8 = Carl-Gerhard | author-link8 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | date = | title = Antibodies to Human Herpesviruses in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Patients |url =https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2019.01946/abstract | journal = Frontiers in Immunology | volume = | issue = | pages=|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.01946|quote=|via=}}</ref> - [https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2019.01946/full (Abstract)]

*2020, Autoantibodies to beta-adrenergic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis (ME) patients – A validation study in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid from two Swedish cohorts<ref name="Bynke2020">{{Cite journal | last = Bynke | first = Annie | author-link = | last2 = Julin | first2 = Per | author-link2 = | last3 = Gottfries | first3 = Carl-Gerhard | author-link3 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | last4 = Heidecke | first4 = Harald | author-link4 = | last5 = Scheibenbogen | first5 = Carmen | author-link5 = Carmen Scheibenbogen | last6 = Bergquist | first6 = Jonas | author-link6 = Jonas Bergquist | date = 2020-08-01 | title = Autoantibodies to beta-adrenergic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis (ME) patients – A validation study in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid from two Swedish cohorts |url =http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666354620300727 | journal = Brain, Behavior, & Immunity - Health|language=en | volume = 7 | issue = | pages = 100107|doi=10.1016/j.bbih.2020.100107|issn=2666-3546|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> - [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666354620300727 (Full text)]

==See also==
*[[Staphylococcus vaccine]]
*[[Sweden]]

==Learn more==

*[https://www.healthrising.org/blog/2015/11/21/gottfries-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-story/ 2015 - Carl-Gerhard Gottfries: A Swedish Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Story] by [[Cort Johnson]]

==References==
<references>
<ref name="Blomberg, 2012">{{Citation | last1 = Blomberg | first1 = Jonas | author-link1 = Jonas Blomberg | last2 =Blomberg | first2 = Fredrik | author-link2 = | last3 = Sjösten | first3 = Anna | author-link3 = | last4 = Sheikholvaezin | first4 = Ali | author-link4 = | last5 =Bölin-Wiener | first5 = Agnes | author-link5 = | last6 =Elfaitouri | first6 = Amal | author-link6 = | last7 = Hessel | first7 = Sanna | author-link7 = | last8 = Gottfries | first8 = Carl-Gerhard | author-link8 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | last9 =Zachrisson | first9 = Olof | author-link9 = Olof Zachrisson | last10 = Öhrmalma | first10 = Christina | author-link10 = | last11 = Jobs | first11 = Magnus | author-link11 = | last12 = Pipkorn | first12 = Rüdiger | author-link12 = | title = No Evidence for Xenotropic Murine Leukemia-Related Virus Infection in Sweden Using Internally Controlled Multiepitope Suspension Array Serology | journal = Clinical and Vaccine Immunology | volume = 19 | issue = 9 | page = 1399-1410 | date = 2012 | pmid = | doi = 10.1128/CVI.00391-12 }}</ref>
<ref name="Blomberg, 2018">{{Citation | last1 = Blomberg | first1 = Jonas | author-link1 = Jonas Blomberg | last2 = Gottfries | first2 = Carl-Gerhard | author-link2 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | last3 = Elfaitouri | first3 = Amal | author-link3 = | last4 = Rizwan | first4 = Muhammad | author-link4 = | last5 =Rosén | first5 = Anders| author-link5 = | title = Infection Elicited Autoimmunity and Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: An Explanatory Model | journal = Frontiers in Immunology | volume = 2018 | issue = 9 | page = 229 | date = 2018 | pmid = | doi = 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00229 }}</ref>
<ref name="Elfaitouri, 2011">{{Citation | last1 = Elfaitouri | first1 = A | author-link1 = | last2 =Shao | first2 = X | author-link2 = | last3 = Mattsson Ulfstedt | first3 = J | author-link3 = | last4 = Muradrasoli | first4 = S | author-link4 = | last5 =Bölin Wiener | first5 = A | author-link5 = | last6 = Golbob | first6 = S | author-link6 = | last7 = Ohrmalm | first7 = C | author-link7 = | last8 = Matousek | first8 = M | author-link8 = | last9 =Zachrisson | first9 = O | author-link9 = Olof Zachrisson | last10 = Gottfries | first10 = C-G | author-link10 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | last11 = Blomberg | first11 = J | author-link11 = Jonas Blomberg | title = Murine gammaretrovirus group G3 was not found in Swedish patients with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. | journal = PLoS One | volume =6 | issue = 10 | page = | date = 2011 | pmid = | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0024602 }}</ref>
<ref name="Elfaitouri, 2013">{{Citation | last1 = Elfaitouri | first1 = A | author-link1 = | last2 =Herrmann | first2 = B | author-link2 = | last3 = Bölin-Wiener | first3 = A | author-link3 = | last4 = Wang | first4 = Y | author-link4 = | last5 = Gottfries | first5 = C-G | author-link5 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | last6 =Zachrisson | first6 = O | author-link6 = Olof Zachrisson | last7 = Pipkorn | first7 = R | author-link7 = | last8 = Rönnblom | first8 = L | author-link8 = | last9 =Blomberg | first9 = J | author-link9 = Jonas Blomberg | title = Epitopes of Microbial and Human Heat Shock Protein 60 and Their Recognition in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis | journal = PLoS One | volume = 8 | issue = 11 | page = | date = 2013 | pmid = | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0081155 }}</ref>
<ref name="Regland, 2015">{{Citation | last1 = Regland | first1 = Björn | author-link1 = | last2 =Forsmark | first2 = Sara | author-link2 = | last3 = Halaouate | first3 = Lena | author-link3 = | last4 = Matousek | first4 = Michael | author-link4 = | last5 = Peilot | first5 = Birgitta | author-link5 = | last6 =Zachrisson | first6 = Olof | author-link6 = Olof Zachrisson | last7 = Gottfries | first7 = Carl-Gerhard | author-link8 = Carl-Gerhard Gottfries | title = Response to Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis and Fibromyalgia. | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | page = | date = 2015 | pmid = | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0124648 }}</ref>
</references>
[[Category:Clinicians]]
[[Category:Swedish clinicians]]
[[Category:Researchers]]
[[Category:Sweden researchers]]

Staphylococcus vaccine

2025-06-09T23:46:47Z

Hip:Added link to Gottfries page

The treatment of myalgic encephalomyelitis /chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) using regular monthly injections of a Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine called Staphypan® was discovered by Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries in the early 1960s. At the beginning of his career as a psychiatrist in Sweden, Prof Gottfries was hit with ME/CFS after he caught the Asian flu H2N2 virus during the 1957 flu pandemic. Due to his ongoing fatigue, he suspected he might have a persistent infection, and he started self experimenting with various bacterial vaccines, as these were used to treat bacterial infections in those days before the advent of antibiotics.

By chance Prof Gottfries discovered that the Staphypan Staphylococcus vaccine ameliorated his ME/CFS symptoms, making his fatigue symptoms disappear. But he found that he had to inject this vaccine monthly in order to keep his symptoms suppressed.

Soon, Prof Gottfries started using this vaccine to successfully treat other ME/CFS patients who he saw at the psychiatric unit where he worked. However, the head physician at the psychiatric unit did not like ME/CFS patients coming to the clinic, and asked Prof Gottfries to stop seeing these patients. So Prof Gottfries had to stop treating ME/CFS, but he kept taking the vaccine himself to keep his ME/CFS at bay. Decades later, as Prof Gottfries approached retirement, he felt he should do some research on this vaccine, and so in 1998 he set up up an ME/CFS clinic called the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200525041507/http://www.gottfriesclinic.se/in-english/gottfries-clinic/ Gottfries Clinic] in Sweden with the purpose of treating patients with the Staphypan vaccine, as well as conducting research on the vaccine. The research included two double-blinded clinical trials on Staphypan to treat patients with both ME/CFS and fibromyalgia, which demonstrated that the vaccine was an effective treatment.

Unfortunately in 2005, Berna Biotech, the manufacturer of Staphypan, discontinued this vaccine. Berna Biotech were obliged to update the old artisanal process of manufacturing Staphypan to comply with good manufacturing practice (GMP) regulations. But in spite of some efforts, Berna Biotech realised that it was technically impossible to update the process to comply with GMP. So reluctantly they had to cease production of Staphypan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCF_RYCnHW4|title=Interview with Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries, Part 1: Background and Vaccine|last=Nilsson|first=Erik|date=30 September 2014|website=YouTube}}</ref>

Another staphylococcal toxoid vaccine made by the Russian pharmaceutical company Medgamal is being used by some ME/CFS patients (see [https://forums.phoenixrising.me/threads/one-of-the-most-effective-me-cfs-treatments-the-staphylococcus-toxoid-vaccine-discontinued-in-2005-is-available-once-again-from-a-new-source.93215/ here]), but it does not contain the same antigens as Staphypan. Its efficacy is unclear, but is thought to work to a degree, though is less effective than Staphypan.

===== Gottfries studies on the Staphypan treatment for ME/CFS =====
The '''1998 clinical trial''' on 28 female patients with both ME/CFS and fibromyalgia found 50% of patients were able to resume half-time or full-time work as a result of the vaccine treatment. The study noted that the vaccine treatment continued to work for these patients after 2 to 6 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Effects of staphylococcus toxoid vaccine on pain and fatigue in patients with fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome|date=1998-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10700309/|journal=European Journal of Pain|volume=2|issue=2|pages=133–142|last=Andersson|first=M.|last2=Bagby|first2=J.R.|last3=Dyrehag|first3=L.‐E.|last4=Gottfries|first4=C.‐G.|language=en|doi=10.1016/s1090-3801(98)90006-4|issn=1090-3801}}</ref>

The '''2002 clinical trial''' on 100 female patients with both ME/CFS and fibromyalgia, it was found 65% of patients responding favourably to the Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine, with 33% of obtaining a 50% reduction in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Treatment with staphylococcus toxoid in fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome—a randomised controlled trial|date=2002-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12413434/|journal=European Journal of Pain|volume=6|issue=6|pages=455–466|last=Zachrisson|first=Olof|last2=Regland|first2=Björn|last3=Jahreskog|first3=Marianne|last4=Jonsson|first4=Michael|last5=Kron|first5=Margareta|last6=Gottfries|first6=Carl‐Gerhard|language=en|doi=10.1016/s1090-3801(02)00044-7|issn=1090-3801}}</ref>

The '''2004 study''' looked at the long-term outcome of the Staphylococcus vaccine treatment for ME/CFS. It noted a high level of safety over 5 years of continuous use of the vaccine. The study points out the beneficial effects of the vaccine last 3 to 4 weeks before re-injection is required.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Long-Term Treatment with a Staphylococcus Toxoid Vaccine in Patients with Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|date=2006|url=https://doi.org/10.1300/J092v13n04_04|journal=Journal Of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|volume=13|issue=4|pages=29–40}}</ref>

The '''2004 Zachrisson study''' examined the antibodies in the blood generated by the Staphypan vaccine. The vaccine induced IgG antibodies to several Staphylococcus toxins and cell wall components. The strongest IgG antibody response was directed at Staphylococcus alpha toxin, and to a lesser extent, lipase. A correlation was observed between the strength of the antibody response to alpha toxin and lipase, and the degree of clinical improvement in the patients. The study found that the main antigenic components of Staphypan are: alpha toxin, enterotoxin A, enterotoxin B, toxic shock syndrome toxin 1, cell wall antigens, and lipase.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Immune Modulation with a Staphylococcal Preparation in Fibromyalgia/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Relation Between Antibody Levels and Clinical Improvement|date=2004-02-01|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14735403/|journal=European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases|volume=23|issue=2|pages=98–105|last=Zachrisson|first=O.|last2=Colque-Navarro|first2=P.|last3=Gottfries|first3=C. G.|last4=Regland|first4=B.|last5=M�llby|first5=R.|language=en|doi=10.1007/s10096-003-1062-8|issn=0934-9723}}</ref>

===== Potential mechanisms of action of the Staphylococcus vaccine =====
Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries does not know the mechanism by which the Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine works to improve ME/CFS. But we know from the 2004 Zachrisson study that for patients given the vaccine, the higher the level of antibodies to alpha toxin induced by the vaccine, the greater the clinical improvement obtained by the patient. So this suggests that the vaccine might ameliorate ME/CFS by neutralising Staphylococcus alpha toxin.

If we examine the effects Staphylococcus alpha toxin has in the body, we see that:

* Alpha toxin is a strong Th17 and IL-17 inducer.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Staphylococcal Alpha-Toxin Is a Strong Inducer of Interleukin-17 in Humans|date=2011-04|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3067557/|journal=Infection and Immunity|volume=79|issue=4|pages=1615–1622|last=Niebuhr|first=Margarete|last2=Gathmann|first2=Merle|last3=Scharonow|first3=Helena|last4=Mamerow|first4=Diana|last5=Mommert|first5=Susanne|last6=Balaji|first6=Hari|last7=Werfel|first7=Thomas|language=en|doi=10.1128/IAI.00958-10|issn=0019-9567}}</ref> Elevated Th17 is linked to viral persistence,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Th17 cells enhance viral persistence and inhibit T cell cytotoxicity in a model of chronic virus infection|date=2009-02-09|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2646583/|journal=Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=206|issue=2|pages=313–328|last=Hou|first=Wanqiu|last2=Kang|first2=Hyun Seok|last3=Kim|first3=Byung S.|language=en|doi=10.1084/jem.20082030|issn=1540-9538}}</ref> and may promote viral replication in acute coxsackievirus B myocarditis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The role of Th17 cells and regulatory T cells in Coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis|date=2011-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21993400/|journal=Virology|volume=421|issue=1|pages=78–84|last=Xie|first=Yuquan|last2=Chen|first2=Ruizhen|last3=Zhang|first3=Xian|last4=Chen|first4=Ping|last5=Liu|first5=Xujie|last6=Xie|first6=Yeqing|last7=Yu|first7=Yong|last8=Yang|first8=Yingzhen|last9=Zou|first9=Yunzeng|last10=Ge|first10=Junbo|last11=Chen|first11=Haozhu|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.virol.2011.09.006|issn=0042-6822}}</ref> So alpha toxin may promote viral persistence, and thus conceivably neutralising alpha toxin may support viral clearance.
* Alpha toxin binds to the cell surface protein ADAM10.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Staphylococcus aureus α-Toxin: Nearly a Century of Intrigue|date=2013-06-13|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3717774/|journal=Toxins|volume=5|issue=6|pages=1140–1166|last=Berube|first=Bryan|last2=Wardenburg|first2=Juliane|language=en|doi=10.3390/toxins5061140|issn=2072-6651}}</ref> ADAM10 is involved in several aspects of immune regulation, and ADAM10 activation may promote T-cell exhaustion, which makes it harder to clear viruses.
* Alpha toxin increases CD8 T-cell deactivation, so weakens antiviral T-cell responses.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Staphylococcus aureus
alpha-toxin inhibits CD8
+
T cell-mediated killing of cancer cells in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma|date=2020-01|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7185203/|journal=OncoImmunology|volume=9|issue=1|last=Blümel|first=Edda|last2=Munir Ahmad|first2=Shamaila|last3=Nastasi|first3=Claudia|last4=Willerslev-Olsen|first4=Andreas|last5=Gluud|first5=Maria|last6=Fredholm|first6=Simon|last7=Hu|first7=Tengpeng|last8=Surewaard|first8=Bas G. J.|last9=Lindahl|first9=Lise M.|last10=Fogh|first10=Hanne|last11=Koralov|first11=Sergei B.|language=en|doi=10.1080/2162402X.2020.1751561|issn=2162-402X}}</ref>
* Russian researchers have shown that the Staphylococcus alpha toxoid from the Russian Medgamal vaccine can correct the immune deficiency caused by coxsackievirus B infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=[Correction of immune response using purified staphylococcal toxoid and likopid in the secondary immunodeficiency induced by Coxsackie virus B3]|date=2001-09|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11871300/|journal=Zhurnal mikrobiologii, epidemiologii i immunobiologii|issue=5|language=en|issn=0372-9311}}</ref>
* Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine was used as a diabetes treatment as early as the 1930s<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Staphylococcal Toxoid in the Treatment of Diabetes|date=1936 Aug|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2065121/|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=17|issue=4|last=Wale|first=R S|last2=Madders|first2=Kate|language=en}}</ref> (type 1 diabetes is linked to coxsackievirus B4 infection).

== Learn more ==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCF_RYCnHW4 Interview with Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries, Part 1: Background and Vaccine] — YouTube
*[https://www.healthrising.org/blog/2015/11/21/gottfries-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-story/ Carl-Gerhard Gottfries: A Swedish Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Vaccine Treatment Success Story] — Cort Johnson, Health Rising, 2015
*[https://cfsremission.com/2016/01/30/a-forgotten-treatment-for-fibromyalgiachronic-fatigue-syndrome/ A forgotten treatment for fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome?] — CFS Remission blog, 2016

==See also==
*[[Staphylococcus aureus]]
*[[Carl-Gerhard Gottfries]]

==References==
<references>
<ref name="zachrisson2002">{{Citation| issn = 1090-3801| volume = 6 | issue = 6| pages = 455–466| last1 = Zachrisson | first1 = Olof | last2 = Regland | first2 = Björn | last3 = Jahreskog | first3 = Marianne | last4 = Jonsson | first4 = Michael | last5 = Kron | first5 = Margareta | last6 = Gottfries | first6 = Carl-Gerhard| title = Treatment with staphylococcus toxoid in fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome--a randomised controlled trial| journal = European Journal of Pain (London, England)| date = 2002 | pmid = 12413434}}</ref>
<ref name="zachrisson2004">{{Citation| doi = 10.1007/s10096-003-1062-8| issn = 0934-9723| volume = 23 | issue = 2| pages = 98–105| last1 = Zachrisson | first1 = O. | last2 = Colque-Navarro | first2 = P. | last3 = Gottfries | first3 = C.G. | last4 = Regland | first4 = B. | last5 = Möllby | first5 = R.| title = Immune modulation with a staphylococcal preparation in fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome: relation between antibody levels and clinical improvement| journal = European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases: Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14735403}}</ref>
</references>

[[Category:Potential treatments]]
[[Category:Immunomodulators]]
[[Category:Immunology]]

Staphylococcus vaccine

2025-06-09T23:30:36Z

Hip:Added potential mechanisms of action section

The treatment of myalgic encephalomyelitis /chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) using regular monthly injections of a Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine called Staphypan® was discovered by Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries in the early 1960s. At the beginning of his career as a psychiatrist in Sweden, Prof Gottfries was hit with ME/CFS after he caught the Asian flu H2N2 virus during the 1957 flu pandemic. Due to his ongoing fatigue, he suspected he might have a persistent infection, and he started self experimenting with various bacterial vaccines, as these were used to treat bacterial infections in those days before the advent of antibiotics.

By chance Prof Gottfries discovered that the Staphypan Staphylococcus vaccine ameliorated his ME/CFS symptoms, making his fatigue symptoms disappear. But he found that he had to inject this vaccine monthly in order to keep his symptoms suppressed.

Soon, Prof Gottfries started using this vaccine to successfully treat other ME/CFS patients who he saw at the psychiatric unit where he worked. However, the head physician at the psychiatric unit did not like ME/CFS patients coming to the clinic, and asked Prof Gottfries to stop seeing these patients. So Prof Gottfries had to stop treating ME/CFS, but he kept taking the vaccine himself to keep his ME/CFS at bay. Decades later, as Prof Gottfries approached retirement, he felt he should do some research on this vaccine, and so in 1998 he set up up an ME/CFS clinic called the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200525041507/http://www.gottfriesclinic.se/in-english/gottfries-clinic/ Gottfries Clinic] in Sweden with the purpose of treating patients with the Staphypan vaccine, as well as conducting research on the vaccine. The research included two double-blinded clinical trials on Staphypan to treat patients with both ME/CFS and fibromyalgia, which demonstrated that the vaccine was an effective treatment.

Unfortunately in 2005, Berna Biotech, the manufacturer of Staphypan, discontinued this vaccine. Berna Biotech were obliged to update the old artisanal process of manufacturing Staphypan to comply with good manufacturing practice (GMP) regulations. But in spite of some efforts, Berna Biotech realised that it was technically impossible to update the process to comply with GMP. So reluctantly they had to cease production of Staphypan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCF_RYCnHW4|title=Interview with Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries, Part 1: Background and Vaccine|last=Nilsson|first=Erik|date=30 September 2014|website=YouTube}}</ref>

Another staphylococcal toxoid vaccine made by the Russian pharmaceutical company Medgamal is being used by some ME/CFS patients (see [https://forums.phoenixrising.me/threads/one-of-the-most-effective-me-cfs-treatments-the-staphylococcus-toxoid-vaccine-discontinued-in-2005-is-available-once-again-from-a-new-source.93215/ here]), but it does not contain the same antigens as Staphypan. Its efficacy is unclear, but is thought to work to a degree, though is less effective than Staphypan.

===== Gottfries studies on the Staphypan treatment for ME/CFS =====
The '''1998 clinical trial''' on 28 female patients with both ME/CFS and fibromyalgia found 50% of patients were able to resume half-time or full-time work as a result of the vaccine treatment. The study noted that the vaccine treatment continued to work for these patients after 2 to 6 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Effects of staphylococcus toxoid vaccine on pain and fatigue in patients with fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome|date=1998-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10700309/|journal=European Journal of Pain|volume=2|issue=2|pages=133–142|last=Andersson|first=M.|last2=Bagby|first2=J.R.|last3=Dyrehag|first3=L.‐E.|last4=Gottfries|first4=C.‐G.|language=en|doi=10.1016/s1090-3801(98)90006-4|issn=1090-3801}}</ref>

The '''2002 clinical trial''' on 100 female patients with both ME/CFS and fibromyalgia, it was found 65% of patients responding favourably to the Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine, with 33% of obtaining a 50% reduction in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Treatment with staphylococcus toxoid in fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome—a randomised controlled trial|date=2002-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12413434/|journal=European Journal of Pain|volume=6|issue=6|pages=455–466|last=Zachrisson|first=Olof|last2=Regland|first2=Björn|last3=Jahreskog|first3=Marianne|last4=Jonsson|first4=Michael|last5=Kron|first5=Margareta|last6=Gottfries|first6=Carl‐Gerhard|language=en|doi=10.1016/s1090-3801(02)00044-7|issn=1090-3801}}</ref>

The '''2004 study''' looked at the long-term outcome of the Staphylococcus vaccine treatment for ME/CFS. It noted a high level of safety over 5 years of continuous use of the vaccine. The study points out the beneficial effects of the vaccine last 3 to 4 weeks before re-injection is required.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Long-Term Treatment with a Staphylococcus Toxoid Vaccine in Patients with Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|date=2006|url=https://doi.org/10.1300/J092v13n04_04|journal=Journal Of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|volume=13|issue=4|pages=29–40}}</ref>

The '''2004 Zachrisson study''' examined the antibodies in the blood generated by the Staphypan vaccine. The vaccine induced IgG antibodies to several Staphylococcus toxins and cell wall components. The strongest IgG antibody response was directed at Staphylococcus alpha toxin, and to a lesser extent, lipase. A correlation was observed between the strength of the antibody response to alpha toxin and lipase, and the degree of clinical improvement in the patients. The study found that the main antigenic components of Staphypan are: alpha toxin, enterotoxin A, enterotoxin B, toxic shock syndrome toxin 1, cell wall antigens, and lipase.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Immune Modulation with a Staphylococcal Preparation in Fibromyalgia/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Relation Between Antibody Levels and Clinical Improvement|date=2004-02-01|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14735403/|journal=European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases|volume=23|issue=2|pages=98–105|last=Zachrisson|first=O.|last2=Colque-Navarro|first2=P.|last3=Gottfries|first3=C. G.|last4=Regland|first4=B.|last5=M�llby|first5=R.|language=en|doi=10.1007/s10096-003-1062-8|issn=0934-9723}}</ref>

===== Potential mechanisms of action of the Staphylococcus vaccine =====
Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries does not know the mechanism by which the Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine works to improve ME/CFS. But we know from the 2004 Zachrisson study that for patients given the vaccine, the higher the level of antibodies to alpha toxin induced by the vaccine, the greater the clinical improvement obtained by the patient. So this suggests that the vaccine might ameliorate ME/CFS by neutralising Staphylococcus alpha toxin.

If we examine the effects Staphylococcus alpha toxin has in the body, we see that:

* Alpha toxin is a strong Th17 and IL-17 inducer.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Staphylococcal Alpha-Toxin Is a Strong Inducer of Interleukin-17 in Humans|date=2011-04|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3067557/|journal=Infection and Immunity|volume=79|issue=4|pages=1615–1622|last=Niebuhr|first=Margarete|last2=Gathmann|first2=Merle|last3=Scharonow|first3=Helena|last4=Mamerow|first4=Diana|last5=Mommert|first5=Susanne|last6=Balaji|first6=Hari|last7=Werfel|first7=Thomas|language=en|doi=10.1128/IAI.00958-10|issn=0019-9567}}</ref> Elevated Th17 is linked to viral persistence,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Th17 cells enhance viral persistence and inhibit T cell cytotoxicity in a model of chronic virus infection|date=2009-02-09|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2646583/|journal=Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=206|issue=2|pages=313–328|last=Hou|first=Wanqiu|last2=Kang|first2=Hyun Seok|last3=Kim|first3=Byung S.|language=en|doi=10.1084/jem.20082030|issn=1540-9538}}</ref> and may promote viral replication in acute coxsackievirus B myocarditis.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The role of Th17 cells and regulatory T cells in Coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis|date=2011-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21993400/|journal=Virology|volume=421|issue=1|pages=78–84|last=Xie|first=Yuquan|last2=Chen|first2=Ruizhen|last3=Zhang|first3=Xian|last4=Chen|first4=Ping|last5=Liu|first5=Xujie|last6=Xie|first6=Yeqing|last7=Yu|first7=Yong|last8=Yang|first8=Yingzhen|last9=Zou|first9=Yunzeng|last10=Ge|first10=Junbo|last11=Chen|first11=Haozhu|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.virol.2011.09.006|issn=0042-6822}}</ref> So alpha toxin may promote viral persistence, and thus conceivably neutralising alpha toxin may support viral clearance.
* Alpha toxin binds to the cell surface protein ADAM10.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Staphylococcus aureus α-Toxin: Nearly a Century of Intrigue|date=2013-06-13|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3717774/|journal=Toxins|volume=5|issue=6|pages=1140–1166|last=Berube|first=Bryan|last2=Wardenburg|first2=Juliane|language=en|doi=10.3390/toxins5061140|issn=2072-6651}}</ref> ADAM10 is involved in several aspects of immune regulation, and ADAM10 activation may promote T-cell exhaustion, which makes it harder to clear viruses.
* Alpha toxin increases CD8 T-cell deactivation, so weakens antiviral T-cell responses.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Staphylococcus aureus
alpha-toxin inhibits CD8
+
T cell-mediated killing of cancer cells in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma|date=2020-01|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7185203/|journal=OncoImmunology|volume=9|issue=1|last=Blümel|first=Edda|last2=Munir Ahmad|first2=Shamaila|last3=Nastasi|first3=Claudia|last4=Willerslev-Olsen|first4=Andreas|last5=Gluud|first5=Maria|last6=Fredholm|first6=Simon|last7=Hu|first7=Tengpeng|last8=Surewaard|first8=Bas G. J.|last9=Lindahl|first9=Lise M.|last10=Fogh|first10=Hanne|last11=Koralov|first11=Sergei B.|language=en|doi=10.1080/2162402X.2020.1751561|issn=2162-402X}}</ref>
* Russian researchers have shown that the Staphylococcus alpha toxoid from the Russian Medgamal vaccine can correct the immune deficiency caused by coxsackievirus B infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=[Correction of immune response using purified staphylococcal toxoid and likopid in the secondary immunodeficiency induced by Coxsackie virus B3]|date=2001-09|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11871300/|journal=Zhurnal mikrobiologii, epidemiologii i immunobiologii|issue=5|language=en|issn=0372-9311}}</ref>
* Staphylococcus toxoid vaccine was used as a diabetes treatment as early as the 1930s<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Staphylococcal Toxoid in the Treatment of Diabetes|date=1936 Aug|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2065121/|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=17|issue=4|last=Wale|first=R S|last2=Madders|first2=Kate|language=en}}</ref> (type 1 diabetes is linked to coxsackievirus B4 infection).

== Learn more ==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCF_RYCnHW4 Interview with Professor Carl-Gerhard Gottfries, Part 1: Background and Vaccine] — YouTube
*[https://www.healthrising.org/blog/2015/11/21/gottfries-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-story/ Carl-Gerhard Gottfries: A Swedish Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Vaccine Treatment Success Story] — Cort Johnson, Health Rising, 2015
*[https://cfsremission.com/2016/01/30/a-forgotten-treatment-for-fibromyalgiachronic-fatigue-syndrome/ A forgotten treatment for fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome?] — CFS Remission blog, 2016

==See also==
*[[Staphylococcus aureus]]

==References==
<references>
<ref name="zachrisson2002">{{Citation| issn = 1090-3801| volume = 6 | issue = 6| pages = 455–466| last1 = Zachrisson | first1 = Olof | last2 = Regland | first2 = Björn | last3 = Jahreskog | first3 = Marianne | last4 = Jonsson | first4 = Michael | last5 = Kron | first5 = Margareta | last6 = Gottfries | first6 = Carl-Gerhard| title = Treatment with staphylococcus toxoid in fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome--a randomised controlled trial| journal = European Journal of Pain (London, England)| date = 2002 | pmid = 12413434}}</ref>
<ref name="zachrisson2004">{{Citation| doi = 10.1007/s10096-003-1062-8| issn = 0934-9723| volume = 23 | issue = 2| pages = 98–105| last1 = Zachrisson | first1 = O. | last2 = Colque-Navarro | first2 = P. | last3 = Gottfries | first3 = C.G. | last4 = Regland | first4 = B. | last5 = Möllby | first5 = R.| title = Immune modulation with a staphylococcal preparation in fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome: relation between antibody levels and clinical improvement| journal = European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases: Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14735403}}</ref>
</references>

[[Category:Potential treatments]]
[[Category:Immunomodulators]]
[[Category:Immunology]]

Staphylococcus vaccine

2025-06-09T23:21:27Z

Hip:Expanded text

List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

2025-06-01T19:36:49Z

Hip:Improved text

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogenic microbes. By this we mean that certain microbes are found in the bodies of patients with the disease much more frequently than in the bodies of healthy people.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Preface|language=en | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/ | date = 2004|publisher=National Academies Press (US) | last = Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats | last2 = Knobler | first2 = Stacey L. | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Siobhán | last4 = Lemon | first4 = Stanley M. | last5 = Najafi | first5 = Marjan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = O'Connor | first = Siobhán M. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Christopher E. | last3 = Hughes | first3 = James M. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16836820/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1051–1057|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> When a microbe such as a [[virus]], [[bacteria|bacterium]], [[fungus]] or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether that microbe might be the cause of the disease, or might in part be causing the disease in conjunction with other causal factors. There are several possible explanations for why a microbe may be associated with a disease:
* The microbe is an "innocent bystander", playing no causal role in the disease, but for some reason, the microbe is more prevalent in the diseased organs in patients with the illness, perhaps because the immune response is compromised in these diseased organs.
* The microbe causes the disease in tandem with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposures).
* The microbe is a singular cause of the disease.
Generally the idea that persistent microbial infections living the tissues and cells of the body might be the underlying cause of many chronic diseases and cancers has not gained widespread acceptance in the medical science community; however, more and more studies are finding microbial links to chronic illnesses.

==Microbes as a cause of chronic diseases and cancers==
Two prominent advocates of the theory that microbes are the cause of numerous chronic diseases and cancers are evolutionary biologist [[wikipedia:Paul_W._Ewald|Professor Paul W. Ewald]], and physicist and anthropologist [[wikipedia:Gregory_Cochran|Dr Gregory Cochran]]. They posit that many chronic diseases and cancers whose etiology is currently unknown will, in the future, likely turn out to be caused by damaging effects from chronic microbial infections living in the body's tissues and cells.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=|title=Plague time: the new germ theory of disease|publisher=Anchor Books|date=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|first=Paul W.|last=Ewald|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease}}</ref><ref name="InfectiousCausation">{{Cite journal|title=Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective|date=2000|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10893730/|journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine|volume=43|issue=3|pages=406–448|last=Cochran|first=G.M.|last2=Ewald|first2=P.W.|last3=Cochran|first3=K.D.|doi=10.1353/pbm.2000.0016|pmid=10893730|issn=0031-5982}}</ref> This viewpoint sharply contrasts with traditional notions of disease etiology, that defective genes, diet, and lifestyle factors underpin disease.

Professor Ewald supports his thesis that germs, not genes, are the primary cause of illnesses with an argument from evolutionary biology: he explains that any faulty genes that cause disease and thus reduce survival and procreation will be rapidly eliminated from the gene pool within a few generations by means of evolutionary natural selection.<ref name="PlagueTime">{{Cite book|title=Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|language=en|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|last=Ewald|first=Paul W.|pages=56}}</ref> Faulty genes are therefore self-extinguishing, and because evolution filters out defective genes so effectively, one would not expect many diseases to result from genetic faults.

Professor Ewald points out that the only faulty genes that are likely to persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, he says the genes that encode for sickle cell disease are maintained and persist down the generations because although these genes are bad, they also protect against malaria, which is a compensating advantage.

Scientists once believed that defective genes would largely explain how most chronic diseases and cancers arise. This belief in part motivated the multi-billion investment in the Human Genome Project, the enterprise to map out all human genes and the entire human genome. But once the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, it soon became apparent that genes do not play a major role in the development of most diseases and cancers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/apr/17/human-genome-genetics-twin-studies|title=The failure of the genome|last=Latham|first=Jonathan|date=2011-04-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> One large meta-analysis found that for the vast majority of chronic diseases, the genetic contribution to the risk of developing the disease is only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191219142739.htm|title=Your DNA is not your destiny -- or a good predictor of your health|date=December 19, 2019|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pafron2019">{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk|date=2019|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31805043/|journal=PloS One|volume=14|issue=12|pages=e0220215|last=Patron|first=Jonas|last2=Serra-Cayuela|first2=Arnau|last3=Han|first3=Beomsoo|last4=Li|first4=Carin|last5=Wishart|first5=David Scott|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220215|pmc=6894795|pmid=31805043|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

Thus the Human Genome Project failed to live up to its hype, and failed to uncover the underlying causes of chronic diseases and cancers. But thanks to this project, we now know genetic factors are not major players in the triggering of disease. So if defective genes cannot explain how chronic diseases and cancers arise, we have to examine other possible causal factors that may be driving disease. When we look at the list of possible causal factors that might underpin disease, that list is short, it consists of: environmental toxins, radiations, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet, and lifestyle factors. There are not many options in that list, which thus brings renewed focus on the idea that infectious agents may be the key players in the development of disease.

Other researchers with an interest in the idea that infectious microbes may be the hidden cause of many chronic diseases and cancers include: Dr Hanan Polansky,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Latent viruses can cause disease by disrupting the competition for the limiting factor p300/CBP|date=2018 Nov 26|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6260892/|journal=Cellular & Molecular Biology Letters|volume=23|pages=56|last=Polansky|first=Hanan|last2=Schwab|first2=Hava|language=en|doi=10.1186/s11658-018-0121-1|pmc=6260892|pmid=30505323}}</ref> Prof Siobhán M. O'Connor,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases - Volume 12, Number 7—July 2006 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/7/06-0037_article|last=O'Connor|first=Siobhán M.|last2=Taylor|first2=Christopher E.|last3=Hughes|first3=James M.|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> Prof Steven S. Coughlin,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases|date=2012 Dec 9|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175921/|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=34|pages=7|last=Coughlin|first=Steven S.|language=en|doi=10.1007/BF03391675|pmc=4175921|pmid=25264396}}</ref> Prof Timothy J. Henrich,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Overview of Infection- Associated Chronic Illnesses|date=2024-04-03|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK602972/|last=National Academies of Sciences|first=Engineering|last2=Division|first2=Health and Medicine|last3=Policy|first3=Board on Health Sciences|last4=Health|first4=Board on Global|last5=Disorders|first5=Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System|last6=Threats|first6=Forum on Microbial|last7=Snair|first7=Megan|last8=Liao|first8=Julie|last9=Ashby|first9=Elizabeth|last10=Biffl|first10=Claire|language=en|publisher=National Academies Press (US)}}</ref> and Prof Wendy Bjerke.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings|date=2011-01-01|url=https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/pthms_fac/2|journal=All PTHMS Faculty Publications|volume=5|issue=1|last=Bjerke|first=Wendy|doi=10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.05}}</ref>

Note, however, that more than one causal factor may be involved in the onset and development of a chronic disease or cancer: an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are simultaneously present. An example of this arises in a mouse model of Crohn's disease, an illness that can be precipitated by a norovirus infection of the intestinal tissues, but only when both a specific gene variant is present, and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine|date=2010-06-25|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997/|journal=Cell|volume=141|issue=7|pages=1135–1145|last=Cadwell|first=Ken|last2=Patel|first2=Khushbu K.|last3=Maloney|first3=Nicole S.|last4=Liu|first4=Ta-Chiang|last5=Ng|first5=Aylwin C.Y.|last6=Storer|first6=Chad E.|last7=Head|first7=Richard D.|last8=Xavier|first8=Ramnik|last9=Stappenbeck|first9=Thaddeus S.|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009|pmc=2908380|pmid=20602997|issn=1097-4172}}</ref> Thus although a microbe may be the primary factor in the onset of diease, its ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon other causal factors.

Microbe-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.<ref name="Kockaya2010">{{Cite journal|title=What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures|date=2010-10-26|url=http://www.scirp.org/Journal/Paperabs.aspx?paperid=2817|journal=Health|volume=2|issue=10|pages=1174–1178|last=Kockaya|first=Guvenc|last2=Wertheimer|first2=Albert|language=en|doi=10.4236/health.2010.210172}}</ref> About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/default/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf|title=Almanac of Chronic Disease|last=Carmona|first=Richard H.|authorlink=|date=2009|website=|publisher=Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|at=Forward|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens==
In the following list of diseases linked to infectious microbes, there is a good possibility that the microbes might be causing the disease, but further research is needed to work out whether these microbes do play a causal role.

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to microbes, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of microbe-associated illnesses.
{| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0"
| style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''Microbes Linked to the Disease'''
|-
| '''Alzheimer's disease'''
| Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>, [[Helicobacter pylori]]<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Periodontal Pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum Exacerbates Alzheimer’s Pathogenesis via Specific Pathways|date=2022 Jun 23|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9260256/|journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience|volume=14|pages=912709|last=Wu|first=Hongle|last2=Qiu|first2=Wei|last3=Zhu|first3=Xiaofang|last4=Li|first4=Xiangfen|last5=Xie|first5=Zhongcong|last6=Carreras|first6=Isabel|last7=Dedeoglu|first7=Alpaslan|last8=Dyke|first8=Thomas Van|last9=Han|first9=Yiping W.|last10=Karimbux|first10=Nadeem|last11=Tu|first11=Qisheng|language=en|doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.912709|pmc=9260256|pmid=35813949}}</ref> and with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref>
[[Herpes simplex virus]] 1 is associated with Alzheimer's disease in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the herpes virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref> Alzheimer's has been linked to [[cytomegalovirus]] infection of the brain, which may enter the brain by travelling along the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alzheimer's disease-associated CD83(+) microglia are linked with increased immunoglobulin G4 and human cytomegalovirus in the gut, vagal nerve, and brain|date=2024-12-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39698934/|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association|last=Readhead|first=Benjamin P.|last2=Mastroeni|first2=Diego F.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi|last4=Sierra|first4=Maria A.|last5=de Ávila|first5=Camila|last6=Jimoh|first6=Tajudeen O.|last7=Haure-Mirande|first7=Jean-Vianney|last8=Atanasoff|first8=Kristina E.|last9=Nolz|first9=Jennifer|last10=Suazo|first10=Crystal|last11=Barton|first11=Nathaniel J.|doi=10.1002/alz.14401|pmid=39698934|issn=1552-5279}}</ref> Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal | last = Pisa | first = Diana | authorlink = | last2 = Alonso | first2 = Ruth | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rábano | first3 = Alberto | authorlink3 = | last4 = Rodal | first4 = Izaskun | authorlink4 = | last5 = Carrasco | first5 = Luis | authorlink5 = | date = Dec 2015 | title = Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|doi=10.1038/srep15015|issn=2045-2322|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> [[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]'''
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with retrovirus<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
|-
| '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]'''
| Infection with borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa. In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[Streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. Adolescent girls who had hospital-treated infections, or had less severe infections treated with anti-infective agents, were found to be at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Exposure to Infections in Childhood With Risk of Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls|date=2019 Apr 24|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6487907/|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=76|issue=8|pages=800|last=Breithaupt|first=Lauren|last2=Köhler-Forsberg|first2=Ole|last3=Larsen|first3=Janne Tidselbak|last4=Benros|first4=Michael E.|last5=Thornton|first5=Laura Marie|last6=Bulik|first6=Cynthia M.|last7=Petersen|first7=Liselotte|language=en|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0297|pmc=6487907|pmid=31017632}}</ref> [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" />
|-
| '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]'''
| Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Helicobacter pylori Infection with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|date=10 July 2024|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/9247586|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|last=Li|first=L|last2=Ren|first2=Y|doi=10.1155/2024/9247586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Helicobacter pylori infection association with anxiety in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms in Hadhramout|url=https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/helicobacter-pylori-infection-association-with-anxiety-in-patients-with-upper-gastrointestinal-symptoms-in-hadhramout-27168.html|journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Digestive Diseases|volume=8|issue=5|pages=daakeek|last=Ahmed M.|last2=Musiaan|first2=Nabeel S.|last3=Al-Zaazaai|first3=Ahmed}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Infection with Toxoplasma gondii increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study|date=2020 Jul 30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10317747/|journal=Parasitology|volume=147|issue=13|pages=1577|last=Lin|first=Hsin-An|last2=Chien|first2=Wu-Chien|last3=Huang|first3=Kuo-Yang|last4=Chung|first4=Chi-Hsiang|last5=Chen|first5=Lih-Chyang|last6=Lin|first6=Hsin-Chung|last7=Guo|first7=Jong-Long|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0031182020001183|pmc=10317747|pmid=32729456}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Population-based cohort study of Toxoplasma gondii P22 antibody positivity correlation with anxiety|date=2024-08-15|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38729222/|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=359|pages=41–48|last=Yang|first=Lili|last2=Wang|first2=Biyun|last3=Wu|first3=Shuizhen|last4=Yang|first4=Zihan|last5=Xin|first5=Zixuan|last6=Zheng|first6=Shuyu|last7=Zou|first7=Weihao|last8=Zhang|first8=Chi|last9=Chen|first9=Jiating|last10=Peng|first10=Hongjuan|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.043|pmid=38729222|issn=1573-2517}}</ref> or at least associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Asthma]]'''
| Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref>
|-
| '''Atherosclerosis'''
| Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> and the bacteria Helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref>
|-
| '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder'''
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[Streptococcus]], and with HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].
Febrile seizures due to [[human herpesvirus 6]] or [[influenza#influenza_A|subtype A]] are a risk factor for ADHD. Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth, and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref>
|-
| '''Autism'''
| Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s'''
| Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV,<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> and the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref>
|-
| '''Bipolar disorder'''
| Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Cancer]]'''
|Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to microbial causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the microbes currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some microbes proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to microbes that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

* '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref>
* '''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref>
* '''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by Schistosoma helminths.<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref>
* '''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref>
* '''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref>
* '''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref>
* '''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[Helicobacter pylori]], Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref>
* '''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref>
* '''Hodgkin's lymphoma''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref>
* '''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
* '''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref>
* '''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref>
* '''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
* '''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
* '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref>
* '''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
* '''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref>
* '''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.
* '''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with mumps virus.<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref>
* '''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref>
* '''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref>
* '''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref>
* '''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref>
* '''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref>
* '''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]'''
|Myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is primarily associated with two [[enterovirus]]es, namely [[Coxsackie B virus]] and [[echovirus]] (for references see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]); with three [[herpesviruses]], namely [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[cytomegalovirus]] and [[human herpesvirus 6]] (for references see [[list of herpesvirus infection studies]]); and with [[SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref>
More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6:58|access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after Giardia enteritis: clinical characteristics, disability and long-term sickness absence|date=2012-02-08|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22316329/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=12|pages=13|last=Naess|first=Halvor|last2=Nyland|first2=Morten|last3=Hausken|first3=Trygve|last4=Follestad|first4=Inghild|last5=Nyland|first5=Harald I.|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-12-13|pmc=3292445|pmid=22316329|issn=1471-230X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome 5 years after giardiasis: differential diagnoses, characteristics and natural course|date=2013-02-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399438/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=13|pages=28|last=Mørch|first=Kristine|last2=Hanevik|first2=Kurt|last3=Rivenes|first3=Ann C.|last4=Bødtker|first4=Jørn E.|last5=Næss|first5=Halvor|last6=Stubhaug|first6=Bjarte|last7=Wensaas|first7=Knut-Arne|last8=Rortveit|first8=Guri|last9=Eide|first9=Geir E.|last10=Hausken|first10=Trygve|last11=Langeland|first11=Nina|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-13-28|pmc=3598369|pmid=23399438|issn=1471-230X}}</ref> [[Ross River virus]] <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Changing epidemiology of Ross River virus disease in South Australia|date=1996-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8862330/|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=165|issue=6|pages=313–317|last=Selden|first=S. M.|last2=Cameron|first2=A. S.|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124989.x|pmid=8862330|issn=0025-729X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study|date=2006-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16950834/|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=333|issue=7568|pages=575|last=Hickie|first=Ian|last2=Davenport|first2=Tracey|last3=Wakefield|first3=Denis|last4=Vollmer-Conna|first4=Ute|last5=Cameron|first5=Barbara|last6=Vernon|first6=Suzanne D.|last7=Reeves|first7=William C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Andrew|last9=Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group|doi=10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE|pmc=1569956|pmid=16950834|issn=1756-1833}}</ref> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evaluation of Prolonged Fatigue Post–West Nile Virus Infection and Association of Fatigue with Elevated Antiviral and Proinflammatory Cytokines|date=2014-09-01|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4150370/|journal=Viral Immunology|volume=27|issue=7|pages=327–333|last=Garcia|first=Melissa N.|last2=Hause|first2=Anne M.|last3=Walker|first3=Christopher M.|last4=Orange|first4=Jordan S.|last5=Hasbun|first5=Rodrigo|last6=Murray|first6=Kristy O.|doi=10.1089/vim.2014.0035|pmc=4150370|pmid=25062274|issn=0882-8245}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic myocarditis'''
|Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref>
|-
|'''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease'''
|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Crohn's disease]]'''
|Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus Candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]] (e-coli) and Serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref> Crohn's disease development has been linked to commensal yeast Candida albicans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An immunological link between Candida albicans colonization and Crohn's disease|date=2015-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23855357/|journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology|volume=41|issue=2|pages=135–139|last=Gerard|first=Romain|last2=Sendid|first2=Boualem|last3=Colombel|first3=Jean-Frederic|last4=Poulain|first4=Daniel|last5=Jouault|first5=Thierry|doi=10.3109/1040841X.2013.810587|pmid=23855357|issn=1549-7828}}</ref> One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref> Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref> In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when these three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
|-
|'''Coronary heart disease'''
|Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dementia'''
|Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
|-
|'''[[Depression]]'''
|Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and [[West Nile virus]],<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and psychiatric disorders: a cross-sectional study in China|date=2022 Sep 5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9445102/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=15092|last=Liu|first=Taixiu|last2=Gao|first2=Peng|last3=Bu|first3=Deyun|last4=Liu|first4=Dong|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-16420-y|pmc=9445102|pmid=36064811}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref>

* '''[[depression|Major depressive disorder]]''' is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> as well as [[Bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal | last = Schaller | first = James L. | last2 = Burkland | first2 = Glenn A. | last3 = Langhoff | first3 = P.J. | date = 2007-09-13 | title = Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3 | pages = 54|issn=1531-0132|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060}}</ref> and [[Borrelia]]<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
* '''Seasonal affective disorder''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]'''
|Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[Coxsackie B]] virus can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms).<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref>
Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a ''reduced'' risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref>

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family.
|-
|'''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]'''
|Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus,<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from aSstaphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dilated cardiomyopathy'''
|Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref>
|-
|'''Epilepsy'''
|Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with infection by [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]'''
|Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref>
|-
|'''[[Hypertension]]'''
|Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref>
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|'''Infertility'''
|Infertility is associated with an infection of the endometrium with the A variant of [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus (HHV-6A ).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Interstitial cystitis]]'''
|The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomavirus, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> and treatment with the EBV antiviral valacyclovir results in clinical improvement in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary Viral Spectrum in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome and the Clinical Efficacy of Valacyclovir Treatment|date=2024-02-26|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38540138/|journal=Biomedicines|volume=12|issue=3|pages=522|last=Kuo|first=Hann-Chorng|last2=Peng|first2=Chih-Wen|last3=Jiang|first3=Yuan-Hong|last4=Jhang|first4=Jia-Fong|doi=10.3390/biomedicines12030522|pmc=10967905|pmid=38540138|issn=2227-9059}}</ref>
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|'''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]'''
|Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis,<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> the protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> Irritable bowel syndrome in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Lower back pain]]'''
|Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref>
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|'''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]'''
|Lupus is associated with the viruses [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal | last = James | first = Judith A. | last2 = Harley | first2 = John B. | last3 = Scofield | first3 = R. Hal | date = Sep 2006 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5 | pages = 462–467|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|issn=1040-8711|pmid=16896283}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref>
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|'''Macular degeneration'''
|Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high titers of cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref>
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|'''[[Metabolic syndrome]]'''
|Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and Helicobacter pylori, as well as the viruses cytomegalovirus] and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref>
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|'''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'''
|Multiple sclerosis, a demyelinating disease, is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> (and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> which is found in the brain tissues of most ME patients,<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal | last = Hassani|first = Asma | last2 = Corboy | first2 = John R. | last3 = Al-Salam | first3 = Suhail | last4 = Khan | first4 = Gulfaraz | date = 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2| pages = e0192109|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264}}</ref> [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref>
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|'''Myocardial infarction'''
|Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are also associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref>
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|'''Myopia'''
|Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough) and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref>
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|'''[[Obesity]]'''
|Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36 (and likewise adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37) will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> And it is known adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref> Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref> Obesity is also associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium, [[Staphylococcus]], [[Streptococcus]], and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref>
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'''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]'''
|Obsessive-compulsive disorder is associated with Streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
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'''[[Panic disorder]]'''
|Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" />
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'''[[Parkinson's disease]]'''
|Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]]/picornavirus<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal | last = Dourmashkin | first = Robert R. | last2 = McCall | first2 = Sherman A. | last3 = Dourmashkin | first3 = Neil | last4 = Hannah | first4 = Matthew J. | date = 2018 | title = Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7 | pages = 302|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|issn=2046-1402|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus,<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> as well as the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref>
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'''Psoriasis'''
|Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref>
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'''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]'''
|Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacterium Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and the bacterium Proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[Borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref>
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'''[[Sarcoidosis]]'''
|Sarcoidosis is associated with mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref>
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'''Schizophrenia'''
|Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> Borrelia species bacteria (Lyme disease),<ref name="pmid7943444" /> Bartonella henselae bacteria (cat scratch disease),<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> and Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name=":1" /> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref>
One study found a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found [[influenza]] virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref>

Individuals experiencing acute psychosis are nearly 11 times more likely to have a urinary tract infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary tract infections in acute psychosis|date=2014-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24499998/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=75|issue=4|pages=379–385|last=Graham|first=Krystle L.|last2=Carson|first2=Chelsea M.|last3=Ezeoke|first3=Amaka|last4=Buckley|first4=Peter F.|last5=Miller|first5=Brian J.|doi=10.4088/JCP.13m08469|pmid=24499998|issn=1555-2101}}</ref>
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'''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]'''
|Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref>
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'''Stroke'''
|Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[Helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> Mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> as well as the virus [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus Histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref>
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'''Tourette syndrome'''
|Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[Streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref>
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|'''Valvular heart disease'''
|Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissue.
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'''Vasculitis'''
|Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.
|}

==Difficulties in determining whether a pathogenic microbe might be causing a disease==
Determining whether a pathogenic microbe plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:
*The time between contracting the infectious microbe and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
*An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
*An infectious microbe may not cause its associated disease in every person.
*Only specific strains of a microbe may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).<ref name="Mechelli2015">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref>
*A given disease may be precipitated by more than one microbe.
*A microbe may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
*A microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
*Some microbes are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect microbes to a disease.
*For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
*A microbe may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the microbe.
In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large body of published studies demonstrating these associations.

==Notable studies==
*2000, [https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2000.0016 Infectious Causation of Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective] - Gregory Cochran, Paul W. Ewald ''et al''
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83689/ The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary] - Forum on Microbial Threats
*2004, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128097/ Virus-induced neurobehavioral disorders: mechanisms and implications] - Keizo Tomonaga
*2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011700/ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/eid/vol4no3/adobe/cassell.pdf Infectious Causes of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer] - Gail H. Cassell
*2006, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291059/ Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases] - Siobhán M O'Connor ''et al''
*2006, [[pmc:1479565/|The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers: it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human micro ecology and the nature of chronic disease]] - Caroline Hadley
*2008, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioral-psychiatric-au Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2010, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioural-psychiatric-a Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2011, [https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=jsbhs The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings] - Wendy Bjerke
*2012, [https://mpkb.org/home/pathogenesis/evidence_bacteria Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens] - Autoimmunity Research Foundation
*2012, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS407997/ Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases] - Steven S Coughlin
*2013, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23935899/ Causal Inference Regarding Infectious Aetiology of Chronic Conditions: A Systematic Review] - Sofia Orrskog ''et al''
*2023, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779437/ Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future] - Robert C Bransfield ''et al''
*2024, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349683/ Viral infections in etiology of mental disorders: a broad analysis of cytokine profile similarities – a narrative review] - Piotr Lorkiewicz ''et al''

==Articles and blogs==
*1999, [https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/0223102a.html Do Germs Cause Cancer?] - Forbes
*1999 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/a-new-germ-theory/377430/ A New Germ Theory] - The Atlantic Monthly Magazine
*1999, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199907/the-infection-connection The Infection Connection] - Psychology Today
*2005, [https://www.alzforum.org/webinars/pathogen-hypothesis-challenging-primacy-genetics-late-onset-alzheimer-disease?liveID=36 Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease] - Alzheimer Research Forum
*2008, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080522155752.htm The Emerging Role Of Infection In Alzheimer's Disease] - Science Daily
*2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230530004102/https://microbeminded.com/2017/11/11/interview-with-evolutionary-biologist-paul-ewald-infection-and-chronic-disease/ Interview With Evolutionary Biologist Paul Ewald] - Amy Proal
*2008, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infected-with-insanity/ Infected with Insanity: Could Microbes Cause Mental Illness?] - Scientific American
*2009, [https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-big-idea-that-might-beat-cancer-and-cut-health-care-costs-by-80-percent The Big Idea That Might Beat Cancer and Cut Health-Care Costs by 80 Percent] - Discover Magazine
*2010, [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/crohns-disease-triggers-may-include-viruses-other-factors Crohn’s Disease Triggers May Include Viruses and Other Factors] - National Institutes of Health
*2012, [https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-an-infection-suddenly-cause-ocd-201202274417 Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?] - Harvard Health Blog
*2012, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-perfectionists-handbook/201202/can-infections-result-in-mental-illness Can Infections Result in Mental Illness?] - Psychology Today
*2013, [https://www.medicaldaily.com/people-hospitalized-infections-are-62-more-likely-develop-mood-disorder-246876 People Hospitalized For Infections Are 62% More Likely To Develop A Mood Disorder] - Medical Daily
*2014, [https://www.livescience.com/43356-chronic-infections-cognitive-decline.html Chronic Infections Linked with Memory Problems Later in Life] - Live Science
*2015, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/05/150521095016.htm Infections can affect your IQ] - Science Daily
*2016, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q9zAG92V9M Toward a Unified, Evolutionary Theory of Cancer] - Paul Ewald: video on the infectious causes of cancer
*2019, [https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/psychiatric-disorders-are-infectious-agents-blame Psychiatric Disorders: Are Infectious Agents to Blame?] - Psychiatric Times
*2023, [https://www.mdedge.com/rheumatology/article/264214/long-covid/infection-related-chronic-illness-new-paradigm-research-and/page/0/1 Infection-related chronic illness: A new paradigm for research and treatment] - MDedge
*2023, [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/22/health/viral-infections-autoimmune-covid.html How Viral Infections Cause Long-Term Health Problems] - New York Tines

==Books==
*2002, [https://www.amazon.com/Plague-Time-Germ-Theory-Disease/dp/0385721846 Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease] - Paul W. Ewald
*2003, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714733_Microcompetition_with_Foreign_DNA_and_the_Origin_of_Chronic_Disease Microcompetition With Foreign DNA And the Origin of Chronic Disease] - Hanan Polansky
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561283/ Microbial Triggers of Chronic Human Illness] - American Society for Microbiology
*2006, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Potbelly-Syndrome-Obesity-Diabetes-Disease/dp/159120058X Potbelly Syndrome: How Common Germs Lead to Obesity, Diabetes and Heart Disease] - Russel Farris and Per Marin
*2008, [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5996250-stealth-germs-in-your-body Stealth Germs in Your Body] - Erno Daniel

==See also==
*[[Virus]]
*[[Pathogen]]s
*[[:Category:Triggers and risk factors|Triggers and risk factors (category)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Lists]]

List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

2025-05-31T23:58:29Z

Hip:Improved text

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogenic microbes. By this we mean that certain microbes are found in the bodies of patients with the disease much more frequently than in the bodies of healthy people.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Preface|language=en | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/ | date = 2004|publisher=National Academies Press (US) | last = Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats | last2 = Knobler | first2 = Stacey L. | last3 = O'Connor | first3 = Siobhán | last4 = Lemon | first4 = Stanley M. | last5 = Najafi | first5 = Marjan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = O'Connor | first = Siobhán M. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Christopher E. | last3 = Hughes | first3 = James M. | date = Jul 2006 | title = Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16836820/|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1051–1057|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> When a microbe such as a [[virus]], [[bacteria|bacterium]], [[fungus]] or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether that microbe might be the cause of the disease, or might in part be causing the disease in conjunction with other causal factors. There are several possible explanations for why a microbe may be associated with a disease:
* The microbe is an "innocent bystander", playing no causal role in the disease, but for some reason, the microbe is more prevalent in the diseased organs in patients with the illness, perhaps because the immune response is compromised in these diseased organs.
* The microbe causes the disease in tandem with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposures).
* The microbe is a singular cause of the disease.
Generally the idea that persistent microbial infections living the tissues and cells of the body might be the underlying cause of many chronic diseases and cancers has not gained widespread acceptance in the medical science community; however, more and more studies are finding microbial links to chronic illnesses.

==Microbes as a cause of chronic diseases and cancers==
Two prominent advocates of the theory that microbes are the cause of numerous chronic diseases and cancers are evolutionary biologist [[wikipedia:Paul_W._Ewald|Professor Paul W. Ewald]], and physicist and anthropologist [[wikipedia:Gregory_Cochran|Dr Gregory Cochran]]. They posit that many chronic diseases and cancers whose etiology is currently unknown will, in the future, likely turn out to be caused by damaging effects from chronic microbial infections living in the body's tissues and cells.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=|title=Plague time: the new germ theory of disease|publisher=Anchor Books|date=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|first=Paul W.|last=Ewald|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease}}</ref><ref name="InfectiousCausation">{{Cite journal|title=Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective|date=2000|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10893730/|journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine|volume=43|issue=3|pages=406–448|last=Cochran|first=G.M.|last2=Ewald|first2=P.W.|last3=Cochran|first3=K.D.|doi=10.1353/pbm.2000.0016|pmid=10893730|issn=0031-5982}}</ref> This viewpoint sharply contrasts with traditional notions of disease etiology, that defective genes, diet, and lifestyle factors underpin disease.

Professor Ewald supports his thesis that germs, not genes, are the primary cause of illnesses with an argument from evolutionary biology: he explains that any faulty genes that cause disease and thus reduce survival and procreation will be rapidly eliminated from the gene pool within a few generations by means of evolutionary natural selection.<ref name="PlagueTime">{{Cite book|title=Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease|isbn=978-0-385-72184-4|language=en|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|last=Ewald|first=Paul W.|pages=56}}</ref> Faulty genes are therefore self-extinguishing, and because evolution filters out defective genes so effectively, one would not expect many diseases to result from genetic faults.

Professor Ewald points out that the only faulty genes that are likely to persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, he says the genes that encode for sickle cell disease are maintained and persist down the generations because although these genes are bad, they also protect against malaria, which is a compensating advantage.

Scientists once believed that defective genes would largely explain how most chronic diseases and cancers arise. This belief motivated the multi-billion investment in the Human Genome Project, the enterprise to map out all human genes and the entire human genome. But once the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, it soon became apparent that genes do not play a major role in the development of most diseases and cancers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/apr/17/human-genome-genetics-twin-studies|title=The failure of the genome|last=Latham|first=Jonathan|date=2011-04-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> One large meta-analysis found that for the vast majority of chronic diseases, the genetic contribution to the risk of developing the disease is only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191219142739.htm|title=Your DNA is not your destiny -- or a good predictor of your health|date=December 19, 2019|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pafron2019">{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk|date=2019|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31805043/|journal=PloS One|volume=14|issue=12|pages=e0220215|last=Patron|first=Jonas|last2=Serra-Cayuela|first2=Arnau|last3=Han|first3=Beomsoo|last4=Li|first4=Carin|last5=Wishart|first5=David Scott|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0220215|pmc=6894795|pmid=31805043|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

Thus the Human Genome Project failed to live up to its hype, and failed to uncover the underlying causes of chronic diseases and cancers. But thanks to this project, we now know genetic factors are not major players in the triggering of disease. So if defective genes cannot explain how chronic diseases and cancers arise, we have to examine other possible causal factors that may be driving disease. When we look at the list of possible causal factors that might underpin disease, that list is short, it consists of: environmental toxins, radiations, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet, and lifestyle factors. There are not many options in that list, which thus brings renewed focus on the idea that infectious agents may be the key players in the development of disease.

Other researchers with an interest in the idea that infectious microbes may be the hidden cause of many chronic diseases and cancers include: Dr Hanan Polansky,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Latent viruses can cause disease by disrupting the competition for the limiting factor p300/CBP|date=2018 Nov 26|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6260892/|journal=Cellular & Molecular Biology Letters|volume=23|pages=56|last=Polansky|first=Hanan|last2=Schwab|first2=Hava|language=en|doi=10.1186/s11658-018-0121-1|pmc=6260892|pmid=30505323}}</ref> Prof Siobhán M. O'Connor,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases - Volume 12, Number 7—July 2006 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/7/06-0037_article|last=O'Connor|first=Siobhán M.|last2=Taylor|first2=Christopher E.|last3=Hughes|first3=James M.|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid1207.060037|pmc=3291059|pmid=16836820}}</ref> Prof Steven S. Coughlin,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases|date=2012 Dec 9|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4175921/|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=34|pages=7|last=Coughlin|first=Steven S.|language=en|doi=10.1007/BF03391675|pmc=4175921|pmid=25264396}}</ref> Prof Timothy J. Henrich,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Overview of Infection- Associated Chronic Illnesses|date=2024-04-03|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK602972/|last=National Academies of Sciences|first=Engineering|last2=Division|first2=Health and Medicine|last3=Policy|first3=Board on Health Sciences|last4=Health|first4=Board on Global|last5=Disorders|first5=Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System|last6=Threats|first6=Forum on Microbial|last7=Snair|first7=Megan|last8=Liao|first8=Julie|last9=Ashby|first9=Elizabeth|last10=Biffl|first10=Claire|language=en|publisher=National Academies Press (US)}}</ref> and Prof Wendy Bjerke.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings|date=2011-01-01|url=https://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/pthms_fac/2|journal=All PTHMS Faculty Publications|volume=5|issue=1|last=Bjerke|first=Wendy|doi=10.5590/JSBHS.2011.05.1.05}}</ref>

Note, however, that more than one causal factor may be involved in the onset and development of a chronic disease or cancer: an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are simultaneously present. An example of this arises in a mouse model of Crohn's disease, an illness that can be precipitated by a norovirus infection of the intestinal tissues, but only when both a specific gene variant is present, and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine|date=2010-06-25|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997/|journal=Cell|volume=141|issue=7|pages=1135–1145|last=Cadwell|first=Ken|last2=Patel|first2=Khushbu K.|last3=Maloney|first3=Nicole S.|last4=Liu|first4=Ta-Chiang|last5=Ng|first5=Aylwin C.Y.|last6=Storer|first6=Chad E.|last7=Head|first7=Richard D.|last8=Xavier|first8=Ramnik|last9=Stappenbeck|first9=Thaddeus S.|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009|pmc=2908380|pmid=20602997|issn=1097-4172}}</ref> Thus although a microbe may be the primary factor in the onset of diease, its ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon other causal factors.

Microbe-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.<ref name="Kockaya2010">{{Cite journal|title=What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures|date=2010-10-26|url=http://www.scirp.org/Journal/Paperabs.aspx?paperid=2817|journal=Health|volume=2|issue=10|pages=1174–1178|last=Kockaya|first=Guvenc|last2=Wertheimer|first2=Albert|language=en|doi=10.4236/health.2010.210172}}</ref> About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/default/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf|title=Almanac of Chronic Disease|last=Carmona|first=Richard H.|authorlink=|date=2009|website=|publisher=Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease|at=Forward|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Diseases associated with infectious microbial pathogens==
In the following list of diseases linked to infectious microbes, there is a good possibility that the microbes might be causing the disease, but further research is needed to work out whether these microbes do play a causal role.

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to microbes, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of microbe-associated illnesses.
{| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0"
| style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''Microbes Linked to the Disease'''
|-
| '''Alzheimer's disease'''
| Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>, [[Helicobacter pylori]]<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Periodontal Pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum Exacerbates Alzheimer’s Pathogenesis via Specific Pathways|date=2022 Jun 23|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9260256/|journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience|volume=14|pages=912709|last=Wu|first=Hongle|last2=Qiu|first2=Wei|last3=Zhu|first3=Xiaofang|last4=Li|first4=Xiangfen|last5=Xie|first5=Zhongcong|last6=Carreras|first6=Isabel|last7=Dedeoglu|first7=Alpaslan|last8=Dyke|first8=Thomas Van|last9=Han|first9=Yiping W.|last10=Karimbux|first10=Nadeem|last11=Tu|first11=Qisheng|language=en|doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.912709|pmc=9260256|pmid=35813949}}</ref> and with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref>
[[Herpes simplex virus]] 1 is associated with Alzheimer's disease in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the herpes virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref> Alzheimer's has been linked to [[cytomegalovirus]] infection of the brain, which may enter the brain by travelling along the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alzheimer's disease-associated CD83(+) microglia are linked with increased immunoglobulin G4 and human cytomegalovirus in the gut, vagal nerve, and brain|date=2024-12-19|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39698934/|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association|last=Readhead|first=Benjamin P.|last2=Mastroeni|first2=Diego F.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi|last4=Sierra|first4=Maria A.|last5=de Ávila|first5=Camila|last6=Jimoh|first6=Tajudeen O.|last7=Haure-Mirande|first7=Jean-Vianney|last8=Atanasoff|first8=Kristina E.|last9=Nolz|first9=Jennifer|last10=Suazo|first10=Crystal|last11=Barton|first11=Nathaniel J.|doi=10.1002/alz.14401|pmid=39698934|issn=1552-5279}}</ref> Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal | last = Pisa | first = Diana | authorlink = | last2 = Alonso | first2 = Ruth | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rábano | first3 = Alberto | authorlink3 = | last4 = Rodal | first4 = Izaskun | authorlink4 = | last5 = Carrasco | first5 = Luis | authorlink5 = | date = Dec 2015 | title = Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|doi=10.1038/srep15015|issn=2045-2322|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> [[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]'''
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with retrovirus<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
|-
| '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]'''
| Infection with borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa. In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[Streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. Adolescent girls who had hospital-treated infections, or had less severe infections treated with anti-infective agents, were found to be at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Exposure to Infections in Childhood With Risk of Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls|date=2019 Apr 24|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6487907/|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=76|issue=8|pages=800|last=Breithaupt|first=Lauren|last2=Köhler-Forsberg|first2=Ole|last3=Larsen|first3=Janne Tidselbak|last4=Benros|first4=Michael E.|last5=Thornton|first5=Laura Marie|last6=Bulik|first6=Cynthia M.|last7=Petersen|first7=Liselotte|language=en|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0297|pmc=6487907|pmid=31017632}}</ref> [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" />
|-
| '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]'''
| Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Association of Helicobacter pylori Infection with Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|date=10 July 2024|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/9247586|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|last=Li|first=L|last2=Ren|first2=Y|doi=10.1155/2024/9247586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Helicobacter pylori infection association with anxiety in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms in Hadhramout|url=https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/helicobacter-pylori-infection-association-with-anxiety-in-patients-with-upper-gastrointestinal-symptoms-in-hadhramout-27168.html|journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Digestive Diseases|volume=8|issue=5|pages=daakeek|last=Ahmed M.|last2=Musiaan|first2=Nabeel S.|last3=Al-Zaazaai|first3=Ahmed}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with Toxoplasma gondii,<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Infection with Toxoplasma gondii increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study|date=2020 Jul 30|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10317747/|journal=Parasitology|volume=147|issue=13|pages=1577|last=Lin|first=Hsin-An|last2=Chien|first2=Wu-Chien|last3=Huang|first3=Kuo-Yang|last4=Chung|first4=Chi-Hsiang|last5=Chen|first5=Lih-Chyang|last6=Lin|first6=Hsin-Chung|last7=Guo|first7=Jong-Long|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0031182020001183|pmc=10317747|pmid=32729456}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Population-based cohort study of Toxoplasma gondii P22 antibody positivity correlation with anxiety|date=2024-08-15|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38729222/|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=359|pages=41–48|last=Yang|first=Lili|last2=Wang|first2=Biyun|last3=Wu|first3=Shuizhen|last4=Yang|first4=Zihan|last5=Xin|first5=Zixuan|last6=Zheng|first6=Shuyu|last7=Zou|first7=Weihao|last8=Zhang|first8=Chi|last9=Chen|first9=Jiating|last10=Peng|first10=Hongjuan|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.043|pmid=38729222|issn=1573-2517}}</ref> or at least associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Asthma]]'''
| Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref>
|-
| '''Atherosclerosis'''
| Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> and the bacteria Helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref>
|-
| '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder'''
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[Streptococcus]], and with HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].
Febrile seizures due to [[human herpesvirus 6]] or [[influenza#influenza_A|subtype A]] are a risk factor for ADHD. Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth, and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref>
|-
| '''Autism'''
| Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s'''
| Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV,<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> and the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[Helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref>
|-
| '''Bipolar disorder'''
| Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Cancer]]'''
|Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to microbial causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the microbes currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some microbes proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to microbes that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

* '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref>
* '''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref>
* '''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by Schistosoma helminths.<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref>
* '''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref>
* '''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref>
* '''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref>
* '''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[Helicobacter pylori]], Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref>
* '''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref>
* '''Hodgkin's lymphoma''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref>
* '''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
* '''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref>
* '''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref>
* '''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
* '''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
* '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref>
* '''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
* '''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref>
* '''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.
* '''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with mumps virus.<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref>
* '''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref>
* '''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref>
* '''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref>
* '''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref>
* '''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref>
* '''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref>
|-
|'''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]'''
|Myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is primarily associated with two [[enterovirus]]es, namely [[Coxsackie B virus]] and [[echovirus]] (for references see [[list of enterovirus infection studies]]); with three [[herpesviruses]], namely [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[cytomegalovirus]] and [[human herpesvirus 6]] (for references see [[list of herpesvirus infection studies]]); and with [[SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Incidence and Prevalence of Post-COVID-19 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis: A Report from the Observational RECOVER-Adult Study|date=2025-01-13|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39804551/|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|last=Vernon|first=Suzanne D.|last2=Zheng|first2=Tianyu|last3=Do|first3=Hyungrok|last4=Marconi|first4=Vincent C.|last5=Jason|first5=Leonard A.|last6=Singer|first6=Nora G.|last7=Natelson|first7=Benjamin H.|last8=Sherif|first8=Zaki A.|last9=Bonilla|first9=Hector Fabio|last10=Taylor|first10=Emily|last11=Mullington|first11=Janet M.|doi=10.1007/s11606-024-09290-9|pmid=39804551|issn=1525-1497}}</ref>
More rarely, ME/CFS may involve chronic infections with the following viruses, bacteria and protozoa: [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhU-G0loqtY&t=6m58s|title=MECFS Alert Episode 38 - Interview with Dr. John Chia, Part 1|last=Chia|first=John|website=www.youtube.com|at=Timecode 6:58|access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> [[Human herpesvirus 7|HHV-7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> [[Coxiella burnetii]], [[Giardia|Giardia lamblia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome after Giardia enteritis: clinical characteristics, disability and long-term sickness absence|date=2012-02-08|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22316329/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=12|pages=13|last=Naess|first=Halvor|last2=Nyland|first2=Morten|last3=Hausken|first3=Trygve|last4=Follestad|first4=Inghild|last5=Nyland|first5=Harald I.|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-12-13|pmc=3292445|pmid=22316329|issn=1471-230X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome 5 years after giardiasis: differential diagnoses, characteristics and natural course|date=2013-02-12|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23399438/|journal=BMC gastroenterology|volume=13|pages=28|last=Mørch|first=Kristine|last2=Hanevik|first2=Kurt|last3=Rivenes|first3=Ann C.|last4=Bødtker|first4=Jørn E.|last5=Næss|first5=Halvor|last6=Stubhaug|first6=Bjarte|last7=Wensaas|first7=Knut-Arne|last8=Rortveit|first8=Guri|last9=Eide|first9=Geir E.|last10=Hausken|first10=Trygve|last11=Langeland|first11=Nina|doi=10.1186/1471-230X-13-28|pmc=3598369|pmid=23399438|issn=1471-230X}}</ref> [[Ross River virus]] <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Changing epidemiology of Ross River virus disease in South Australia|date=1996-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8862330/|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=165|issue=6|pages=313–317|last=Selden|first=S. M.|last2=Cameron|first2=A. S.|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124989.x|pmid=8862330|issn=0025-729X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Post-infective and chronic fatigue syndromes precipitated by viral and non-viral pathogens: prospective cohort study|date=2006-09-16|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16950834/|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=333|issue=7568|pages=575|last=Hickie|first=Ian|last2=Davenport|first2=Tracey|last3=Wakefield|first3=Denis|last4=Vollmer-Conna|first4=Ute|last5=Cameron|first5=Barbara|last6=Vernon|first6=Suzanne D.|last7=Reeves|first7=William C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Andrew|last9=Dubbo Infection Outcomes Study Group|doi=10.1136/bmj.38933.585764.AE|pmc=1569956|pmid=16950834|issn=1756-1833}}</ref> and [[West Nile virus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Evaluation of Prolonged Fatigue Post–West Nile Virus Infection and Association of Fatigue with Elevated Antiviral and Proinflammatory Cytokines|date=2014-09-01|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4150370/|journal=Viral Immunology|volume=27|issue=7|pages=327–333|last=Garcia|first=Melissa N.|last2=Hause|first2=Anne M.|last3=Walker|first3=Christopher M.|last4=Orange|first4=Jordan S.|last5=Hasbun|first5=Rodrigo|last6=Murray|first6=Kristy O.|doi=10.1089/vim.2014.0035|pmc=4150370|pmid=25062274|issn=0882-8245}}</ref>
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|'''Chronic myocarditis'''
|Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref>
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|'''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease'''
|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref>
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|'''[[Crohn's disease]]'''
|Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus Candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]] (e-coli) and Serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref> Crohn's disease development has been linked to commensal yeast Candida albicans.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An immunological link between Candida albicans colonization and Crohn's disease|date=2015-06|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23855357/|journal=Critical Reviews in Microbiology|volume=41|issue=2|pages=135–139|last=Gerard|first=Romain|last2=Sendid|first2=Boualem|last3=Colombel|first3=Jean-Frederic|last4=Poulain|first4=Daniel|last5=Jouault|first5=Thierry|doi=10.3109/1040841X.2013.810587|pmid=23855357|issn=1549-7828}}</ref> One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref> Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref> In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when these three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
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|'''Coronary heart disease'''
|Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref>
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|'''Dementia'''
|Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
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|'''[[Depression]]'''
|Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and [[West Nile virus]],<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and psychiatric disorders: a cross-sectional study in China|date=2022 Sep 5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9445102/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=15092|last=Liu|first=Taixiu|last2=Gao|first2=Peng|last3=Bu|first3=Deyun|last4=Liu|first4=Dong|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-16420-y|pmc=9445102|pmid=36064811}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref>

* '''[[depression|Major depressive disorder]]''' is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> as well as [[Bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal | last = Schaller | first = James L. | last2 = Burkland | first2 = Glenn A. | last3 = Langhoff | first3 = P.J. | date = 2007-09-13 | title = Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3 | pages = 54|issn=1531-0132|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060}}</ref> and [[Borrelia]]<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
* '''Seasonal affective disorder''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]'''
|Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[Coxsackie B]] virus can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms).<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref>
Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a ''reduced'' risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref>

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family.
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|'''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]'''
|Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> hepatitis C virus,<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus,<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from aSstaphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref>
|-
|'''Dilated cardiomyopathy'''
|Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref>
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|'''Epilepsy'''
|Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with infection by [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref>
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|'''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]'''
|Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni,<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref>
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|'''[[Hypertension]]'''
|Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref>
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|'''Infertility'''
|Infertility is associated with an infection of the endometrium with the A variant of [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus (HHV-6A ).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref>
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|'''[[Interstitial cystitis]]'''
|The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomavirus, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> and treatment with the EBV antiviral valacyclovir results in clinical improvement in symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary Viral Spectrum in Patients with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome and the Clinical Efficacy of Valacyclovir Treatment|date=2024-02-26|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38540138/|journal=Biomedicines|volume=12|issue=3|pages=522|last=Kuo|first=Hann-Chorng|last2=Peng|first2=Chih-Wen|last3=Jiang|first3=Yuan-Hong|last4=Jhang|first4=Jia-Fong|doi=10.3390/biomedicines12030522|pmc=10967905|pmid=38540138|issn=2227-9059}}</ref>
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|'''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]'''
|Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis,<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> the protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> Irritable bowel syndrome in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>
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|'''[[Lower back pain]]'''
|Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref>
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|'''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]'''
|Lupus is associated with the viruses [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal | last = James | first = Judith A. | last2 = Harley | first2 = John B. | last3 = Scofield | first3 = R. Hal | date = Sep 2006 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5 | pages = 462–467|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|issn=1040-8711|pmid=16896283}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref>
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|'''Macular degeneration'''
|Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high titers of cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref>
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|'''[[Metabolic syndrome]]'''
|Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and Helicobacter pylori, as well as the viruses cytomegalovirus] and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref>
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|'''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'''
|Multiple sclerosis, a demyelinating disease, is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> (and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> which is found in the brain tissues of most ME patients,<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal | last = Hassani|first = Asma | last2 = Corboy | first2 = John R. | last3 = Al-Salam | first3 = Suhail | last4 = Khan | first4 = Gulfaraz | date = 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2| pages = e0192109|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264}}</ref> [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref>
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|'''Myocardial infarction'''
|Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are also associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref>
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|'''Myopia'''
|Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough) and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref>
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|'''[[Obesity]]'''
|Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36 (and likewise adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37) will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> And it is known adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref> Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref> Obesity is also associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as Clostridium, [[Staphylococcus]], [[Streptococcus]], and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref>
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'''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]'''
|Obsessive-compulsive disorder is associated with Streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.
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'''[[Panic disorder]]'''
|Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" />
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'''[[Parkinson's disease]]'''
|Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]]/picornavirus<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal | last = Dourmashkin | first = Robert R. | last2 = McCall | first2 = Sherman A. | last3 = Dourmashkin | first3 = Neil | last4 = Hannah | first4 = Matthew J. | date = 2018 | title = Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7 | pages = 302|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|issn=2046-1402|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus,<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> as well as the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref>
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'''Psoriasis'''
|Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref>
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'''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]'''
|Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacterium Porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and the bacterium Proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[Borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref>
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'''[[Sarcoidosis]]'''
|Sarcoidosis is associated with mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref>
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'''Schizophrenia'''
|Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> Borrelia species bacteria (Lyme disease),<ref name="pmid7943444" /> Bartonella henselae bacteria (cat scratch disease),<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> and Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name=":1" /> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref>
One study found a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found [[influenza]] virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref>

Individuals experiencing acute psychosis are nearly 11 times more likely to have a urinary tract infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Urinary tract infections in acute psychosis|date=2014-04|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24499998/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=75|issue=4|pages=379–385|last=Graham|first=Krystle L.|last2=Carson|first2=Chelsea M.|last3=Ezeoke|first3=Amaka|last4=Buckley|first4=Peter F.|last5=Miller|first5=Brian J.|doi=10.4088/JCP.13m08469|pmid=24499998|issn=1555-2101}}</ref>
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'''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]'''
|Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[Coxsackie B virus]].<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref>
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'''Stroke'''
|Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[Helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> Mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> as well as the virus [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus Histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref>
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'''Tourette syndrome'''
|Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[Streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref>
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|'''Valvular heart disease'''
|Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissue.
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'''Vasculitis'''
|Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.
|}

==Difficulties in determining whether a pathogenic microbe might be causing a disease==
Determining whether a pathogenic microbe plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:
*The time between contracting the infectious microbe and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
*An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
*An infectious microbe may not cause its associated disease in every person.
*Only specific strains of a microbe may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).<ref name="Mechelli2015">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref>
*A given disease may be precipitated by more than one microbe.
*A microbe may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
*A microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
*Some microbes are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect microbes to a disease.
*For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
*A microbe may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the microbe.
In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large body of published studies demonstrating these associations.

==Notable studies==
*2000, [https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2000.0016 Infectious Causation of Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective] - Gregory Cochran, Paul W. Ewald ''et al''
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83689/ The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary] - Forum on Microbial Threats
*2004, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128097/ Virus-induced neurobehavioral disorders: mechanisms and implications] - Keizo Tomonaga
*2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011700/ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/eid/vol4no3/adobe/cassell.pdf Infectious Causes of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cancer] - Gail H. Cassell
*2006, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3291059/ Emerging Infectious Determinants of Chronic Diseases] - Siobhán M O'Connor ''et al''
*2006, [[pmc:1479565/|The infection connection: Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers: it offers an unprecedented opportunity to study changes in human micro ecology and the nature of chronic disease]] - Caroline Hadley
*2008, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioral-psychiatric-au Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 1] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2010, [https://www.bjmp.org/content/role-chronic-bacterial-and-viral-infections-neurodegenerative-neurobehavioural-psychiatric-a Role of Chronic Bacterial and Viral Infections in Neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioural, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part 2] - Garth L. Nicolson ''et al''
*2011, [https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=jsbhs The Impact of Infectious Disease on Chronic Disease: A Review of Contemporary Findings] - Wendy Bjerke
*2012, [https://mpkb.org/home/pathogenesis/evidence_bacteria Evidence That Chronic Disease is Caused by Pathogens] - Autoimmunity Research Foundation
*2012, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS407997/ Anxiety and Depression: Linkages with Viral Diseases] - Steven S Coughlin
*2013, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23935899/ Causal Inference Regarding Infectious Aetiology of Chronic Conditions: A Systematic Review] - Sofia Orrskog ''et al''
*2023, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779437/ Microbes and Mental Illness: Past, Present, and Future] - Robert C Bransfield ''et al''
*2024, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349683/ Viral infections in etiology of mental disorders: a broad analysis of cytokine profile similarities – a narrative review] - Piotr Lorkiewicz ''et al''

==Articles and blogs==
*1999, [https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/0223102a.html Do Germs Cause Cancer?] - Forbes
*1999 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/02/a-new-germ-theory/377430/ A New Germ Theory] - The Atlantic Monthly Magazine
*1999, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199907/the-infection-connection The Infection Connection] - Psychology Today
*2005, [https://www.alzforum.org/webinars/pathogen-hypothesis-challenging-primacy-genetics-late-onset-alzheimer-disease?liveID=36 Challenging the Primacy of Genetics in Late-Onset Alzheimer Disease] - Alzheimer Research Forum
*2008, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080522155752.htm The Emerging Role Of Infection In Alzheimer's Disease] - Science Daily
*2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230530004102/https://microbeminded.com/2017/11/11/interview-with-evolutionary-biologist-paul-ewald-infection-and-chronic-disease/ Interview With Evolutionary Biologist Paul Ewald] - Amy Proal
*2008, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infected-with-insanity/ Infected with Insanity: Could Microbes Cause Mental Illness?] - Scientific American
*2009, [https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-big-idea-that-might-beat-cancer-and-cut-health-care-costs-by-80-percent The Big Idea That Might Beat Cancer and Cut Health-Care Costs by 80 Percent] - Discover Magazine
*2010, [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/crohns-disease-triggers-may-include-viruses-other-factors Crohn’s Disease Triggers May Include Viruses and Other Factors] - National Institutes of Health
*2012, [https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-an-infection-suddenly-cause-ocd-201202274417 Can an Infection Suddenly Cause OCD?] - Harvard Health Blog
*2012, [https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-perfectionists-handbook/201202/can-infections-result-in-mental-illness Can Infections Result in Mental Illness?] - Psychology Today
*2013, [https://www.medicaldaily.com/people-hospitalized-infections-are-62-more-likely-develop-mood-disorder-246876 People Hospitalized For Infections Are 62% More Likely To Develop A Mood Disorder] - Medical Daily
*2014, [https://www.livescience.com/43356-chronic-infections-cognitive-decline.html Chronic Infections Linked with Memory Problems Later in Life] - Live Science
*2015, [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/05/150521095016.htm Infections can affect your IQ] - Science Daily
*2016, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q9zAG92V9M Toward a Unified, Evolutionary Theory of Cancer] - Paul Ewald: video on the infectious causes of cancer
*2019, [https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/psychiatric-disorders-are-infectious-agents-blame Psychiatric Disorders: Are Infectious Agents to Blame?] - Psychiatric Times
*2023, [https://www.mdedge.com/rheumatology/article/264214/long-covid/infection-related-chronic-illness-new-paradigm-research-and/page/0/1 Infection-related chronic illness: A new paradigm for research and treatment] - MDedge
*2023, [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/22/health/viral-infections-autoimmune-covid.html How Viral Infections Cause Long-Term Health Problems] - New York Tines

==Books==
*2002, [https://www.amazon.com/Plague-Time-Germ-Theory-Disease/dp/0385721846 Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease] - Paul W. Ewald
*2003, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329714733_Microcompetition_with_Foreign_DNA_and_the_Origin_of_Chronic_Disease Microcompetition With Foreign DNA And the Origin of Chronic Disease] - Hanan Polansky
*2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK561283/ Microbial Triggers of Chronic Human Illness] - American Society for Microbiology
*2006, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Potbelly-Syndrome-Obesity-Diabetes-Disease/dp/159120058X Potbelly Syndrome: How Common Germs Lead to Obesity, Diabetes and Heart Disease] - Russel Farris and Per Marin
*2008, [https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5996250-stealth-germs-in-your-body Stealth Germs in Your Body] - Erno Daniel

==See also==
*[[Virus]]
*[[Pathogen]]s
*[[:Category:Triggers and risk factors|Triggers and risk factors (category)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Infectious agents]]
[[Category:Lists]]