Microbiome: Difference between revisions

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{{Cleanup/Citations needed|date = Mar 2021}}
{{Cleanup/Citations needed | date = Mar 2021}}
The '''microbiome''' is the ecological community of commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic microorganisms that live on the skin and genitals and in the [[nose microbiome|nose]], ears, [[oral microbiome|mouth]] and [[gut microbiome|gut]]. [[Dysbiosis]] or an imbalance in this community may play a role in the pathophysiology of [[chronic fatigue syndrome]].{{Citation needed|date=Mar 2021}} A 2021 study observed significant differences in several bacterial populations in the saliva and gut in CFS/ME patients compared to external controls, but was unable to determine if the alteration of the microbiome is a cause or a consequence of the onset of CFS/ME and if the changes in the microbial composition are related to any of the several secondary symptoms.<ref name=":0" />
The '''microbiome''' is the community of microorganisms (such as [[bacteria]], [[fungus|fungi]], and [[virus]]es) that inhabit a particular environment, especially the human body.
<ref>{{Cite web|website=Merrian-Webster Medical Dictionary|access-date=2021-02-20 | title = Definition of MICROBIOME|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/microbiome}}</ref>


==Anatomical areas==
==Anatomical areas==
The microorganisms live on the skin and genitals and in the [[nose microbiome|nose]], ears, [[oral microbiome|mouth]] and [[gut microbiome|gut]]. [[Dysbiosis]] or an imbalance in this community may play a role in the pathophysiology of [[chronic fatigue syndrome]].{{Citation needed | date = Mar 2021}}


===Gut flora===
===Gut flora===
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==Chronic fatigue syndrome==
==ME/CFS==


A growing body of evidence suggests that an [[dysbiosis|altered microbiome]]; [[intestinal permeability|mucosal barrier]] dysfunction;<ref name="Lakhan2010">{{Citation| doi = 10.1186/1743-7075-7-79| issn = 1743-7075| volume = 7|issue = | pages = 79| last1 = Lakhan| first1 = Shaheen E| last2 = Kirchgessner| first2 = Annette| title = Gut inflammation in chronic fatigue syndrome| journal = Nutrition & Metabolism| access-date = 2016-12-13| date = 2010-10-12| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2964729/| pmid = 20939923}}</ref> the translocation or crossing of bacteria from the gut into the [[blood|bloodstream]]; and subsequent immune response may pay a role in the pathophysiology of [[chronic fatigue syndrome]].  
A growing body of evidence suggests that an [[dysbiosis|altered microbiome]]; [[intestinal permeability|mucosal barrier]] dysfunction;<ref name="Lakhan2010">{{Citation| doi = 10.1186/1743-7075-7-79| issn = 1743-7075| volume = 7|issue = | pages = 79| last1 = Lakhan | first1 = Shaheen E| last2 = Kirchgessner | first2 = Annette| title = Gut inflammation in chronic fatigue syndrome| journal = Nutrition & Metabolism| access-date = 2016-12-13 | date = 2010-10-12| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2964729/| pmid = 20939923}}</ref> the translocation or crossing of bacteria from the gut into the [[blood|bloodstream]]; and subsequent immune response may pay a role in the pathophysiology of [[myalgic encephalomyelitis]]\[[chronic fatigue syndrome]].  


A 2021 study showed that the intestinal microbial profile recorded in CFS/ME patients is indeed consistent with the reported for other autoimmune conditions, such as Crohn’s disease, Ulcerative Colitis and Systemic Lupus Erythematous.
A 2021 study by Damiano and colleagues observed significant differences in several types of bacteria in the saliva and gut in CFS/ME patients compared to controls, but was unable to determine if the alteration of the microbiome is a cause or a consequence of the onset of CFS/ME and if the changes in the microbial composition are related to any of the several secondary symptoms.<ref name="Damiano2021" /> The study showed that the intestinal microbial profile recorded in a group of ME/CFS patients was consistent with the reported for other autoimmune conditions, such as Crohn’s disease, [[ulcerative colitis]] and [[systemic lupus erythematous]].{{citation needed | date = 2021}}


===Immune response===
===Immune response===


A study of 128 [[ME/CFS]] patients found significantly increased [[IgA]] response to [[lipopolysaccharide]]s from the cell walls of commensal bacteria. Increased IgA response was associated with increased serum [[IL-1]], [[TNFα]], [[neopterin]] and [[elastase]]. The study concluded that increased translocation of commensal bacteria may be responsible for the disease activity in some ME/CFS patients.<ref name="Maes2012" />
A study of 128 [[ME/CFS]] patients found significantly increased [[IgA]] response to [[lipopolysaccharide]]s from the cell walls of commensal bacteria. Increased IgA response was associated with increased serum [[interleukin 1|IL-1]], [[TNFα]], [[neopterin]] and [[elastase]]. The study concluded that increased translocation of commensal bacteria may be responsible for the disease activity in some ME/CFS patients.<ref name="Maes2012" />


===Dysbiosis===
===Dysbiosis===
:''{{main|page_name =Dysbiosis}}''
:''{{main|page_name =Dysbiosis}}''


There is strong evidence that [[dysbiosis]] or an imbalance in the microbial ecology of the gut plays a role in the symptoms of [[ME/CFS]]. ME/CFS patients have higher levels of [[D-lactic acid]] bacteria,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sheedy|first=John R.|author-link=|last2=Wettenhall|first2=Richard E. H.|author-link2=|last3=Scanlon|first3=Denis|author-link3=|last4=Gooley|first4=Paul R.|author-link4=Paul Gooley|last5=Lewis|first5=Donald P.|author-link5=Donald Lewis|last6=McGregor|first6=Neil|author-link6=Neil McGregor|last7=Stapleton|first7=David I.|last8=Butt|first8=Henry L.|author-link8=Henry Butt|last9=De Meirleir|first9=Kenny L.|author-link9=Kenny De Meirleir|date=Jul 2009|title=Increased d-lactic Acid intestinal bacteria in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19567398|journal=In Vivo (Athens, Greece)|volume=23|issue=4|pages=621–628|doi=|issn=0258-851X|pmc=|pmid=19567398|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> decreased levels of [[Bifidobacteria]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Logan|first=Alan C|author-link=|last2=Venket Rao|first2=A|author-link2=|last3=Irani|first3=Dinaz|author-link3=|last4=|first4=|author-link4=|last5=|first5=|author-link5=|last6=|first6=|author-link6=|last7=|first7=|last8=|first8=|date=Jun 2003|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome: lactic acid bacteria may be of therapeutic value|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306987703000963|journal=Medical Hypotheses|language=en|volume=60|issue=6|pages=915–923|doi=10.1016/S0306-9877(03)00096-3|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and may suffer from [[small intestinal bacterial overgrowth]] (SIBO) at higher rates.{{citation needed}}
There is strong evidence that [[dysbiosis]] or an imbalance in the microbial ecology of the gut plays a role in the symptoms of [[ME/CFS]]. ME/CFS patients have higher levels of [[D-lactic acid]] bacteria,<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Sheedy | first = John R. | authorlink = | last2 = Wettenhall | first2 = Richard E. H. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Scanlon | first3 = Denis | authorlink3 = | last4 = Gooley | first4 = Paul R. | authorlink4 = Paul Gooley | last5 = Lewis | first5 = Donald P. | authorlink5 = Donald Lewis | last6 = McGregor | first6 = Neil | authorlink6 = Neil McGregor | last7 = Stapleton | first7 = David I. | last8 = Butt | first8 = Henry L. | authorlink8 = Henry Butt | last9 = De Meirleir | first9 = Kenny L. | authorlink9 = Kenny De Meirleir | date = Jul 2009 | title = Increased d-lactic Acid intestinal bacteria in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19567398|journal=In Vivo (Athens, Greece)|volume=23|issue=4 | pages = 621–628|doi=|issn=0258-851X|pmc=|pmid=19567398|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> decreased levels of [[bifidobacteria]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Logan | first = Alan C | authorlink = | last2 = Venket Rao | first2 = A | authorlink2 = | last3 = Irani | first3 = Dinaz | authorlink3 = | date = Jun 2003 | title = Chronic fatigue syndrome: lactic acid bacteria may be of therapeutic value|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306987703000963|journal=Medical Hypotheses|language=en|volume=60|issue=6 | pages = 915–923|doi=10.1016/S0306-9877(03)00096-3|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and may suffer from [[small intestinal bacterial overgrowth]] (SIBO) at higher rates.{{citation needed}}


===Exercise===
===Exercise===


A small study of ten CFS patients found significant changes in the composition of the microbiome and increased bacterial translocation (movement from the [[gastrointestinal system|intestine]] into the [[blood|bloodstream]] following exercise). In the blood, the study found increased ''[[Clostridium]]'' fifteen minutes after exercise and increased ''[[Bacilli]]'' 48 hours later.<ref name="Shukla2015" /><ref>{{citation |last= Johnson|first= Cort|date= 21 December 2015|title= Exercise Triggers Gut Changes in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS)|url= http://www.cortjohnson.org/blog/2015/12/21/exercise-gut-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-me-cfs/|newspaper= HealthRising|location= Houston|access-date= 2016-12-12}}</ref>
A small study of ten CFS patients found significant changes in the composition of the microbiome and increased bacterial translocation (movement from the [[gastrointestinal system|intestine]] into the [[blood|bloodstream]] following [[exercise]]). In the blood, the study found increased [[Clostridium]] fifteen minutes after exercise and increased [[bacilli]] 48 hours later.<ref name="Shukla2015" /><ref>{{citation | last = Johnson | first = Cort | date = December 21, 2015 | title = Exercise Triggers Gut Changes in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS)|url= http://www.cortjohnson.org/blog/2015/12/21/exercise-gut-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-me-cfs/|newspaper= HealthRising|location= Houston|access-date= 2016-12-12}}</ref>{{citation needed | date = 2021 | reason=Add original research}}


===Sleep===
===Sleep===
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=== Viral infection ===
=== Viral infection ===


Viral infection can cause shifts in the gut microbiome.  
Viruses can cause shifts in the gut microbiome.  


In mice, the influenza virus leads to injury of both the lungs (the primary site of infection) and the intestinal tract, even when there is no evidence of viral replication in the gut, and causes decreases [[Lactobacillus]] and [[Lactococcus]] species and increases in [[Enterobacteriaceae]].<ref>{{citation |last= Racaniello|first= Vincent|date= 10 December 2014|title= How influenza virus infection might lead to gastrointestinal symptoms|url= http://www.virology.ws/2014/12/10/how-influenza-virus-infection-might-lead-to-gastrointestinal-symptoms/|newspaper= Virology Blog|location= New York|access-date= 2016-12-12}}</ref>
In mice, the influenza virus leads to injury of both the lungs (the primary site of infection) and the intestinal tract, even when there is no evidence of viral replication in the gut, and causes decreases [[Lactobacillus]] and [[Lactococcus]] species and increases in [[Enterobacteriaceae]].<ref>{{citation | last = Racaniello | first = Vincent | date = 10 December 2014 | title = How influenza virus infection might lead to gastrointestinal symptoms|url= http://www.virology.ws/2014/12/10/how-influenza-virus-infection-might-lead-to-gastrointestinal-symptoms/|newspaper= Virology Blog|location= New York|access-date= 2016-12-12}}</ref>


=== Pregnancy ===
=== Pregnancy ===
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==Notable studies==
==Notable studies==
*2009, Increased d-lactic Acid intestinal bacteria in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sheedy|first=John R.|author-link=|last2=Wettenhall|first2=Richard E. H.|author-link2=|last3=Scanlon|first3=Denis|author-link3=|last4=Gooley|first4=Paul R.|author-link4=Paul Gooley|last5=Lewis|first5=Donald P.|author-link5=Donald Lewis|last6=McGregor|first6=Neil|author-link6=Neil McGregor|last7=Stapleton|first7=David I.|last8=Butt|first8=Henry L.|author-link8=Henry Butt|last9=De Meirleir|first9=Kenny L.|author-link9=Kenny De Meirleir|date=Jul 2009|title=Increased d-lactic Acid intestinal bacteria in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19567398|journal=In Vivo (Athens, Greece)|volume=23|issue=4|pages=621–628|doi=|issn=0258-851X|pmc=|pmid=19567398|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> - [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5843715/ (Full Text)]
*2009, Increased d-lactic Acid intestinal bacteria in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Sheedy | first = John R. | authorlink = | last2 = Wettenhall | first2 = Richard E. H. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Scanlon | first3 = Denis | authorlink3 = | last4 = Gooley | first4 = Paul R. | authorlink4 = Paul Gooley | last5 = Lewis | first5 = Donald P. | authorlink5 = Donald Lewis | last6 = McGregor | first6 = Neil | authorlink6 = Neil McGregor | last7 = Stapleton | first7 = David I. | last8 = Butt | first8 = Henry L. | authorlink8 = Henry Butt | last9 = De Meirleir | first9 = Kenny L. | authorlink9 = Kenny De Meirleir | date = Jul 2009 | title = Increased d-lactic Acid intestinal bacteria in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19567398|journal=In Vivo (Athens, Greece)|volume=23|issue=4 | pages = 621–628|doi=|issn=0258-851X|pmc=|pmid=19567398|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> - [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5843715/ (Full Text)]
*2010, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20939923 Gut inflammation in chronic fatigue syndrome]<ref name="Lakhan2010" />
*2010, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20939923 Gut inflammation in chronic fatigue syndrome]<ref name="Lakhan2010" />
*2012, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21967891 Increased IgA responses to the LPS of commensal bacteria is associated with inflammation and activation of cell-mediated immunity in chronic fatigue syndrome]<ref name="Maes2012" />
*2012, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21967891 Increased IgA responses to the LPS of commensal bacteria is associated with inflammation and activation of cell-mediated immunity in chronic fatigue syndrome]<ref name="Maes2012" />
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*2015, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26683192 Changes in Gut and Plasma Microbiome following Exercise Challenge in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS)]<ref name="Shukla2015" />
*2015, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26683192 Changes in Gut and Plasma Microbiome following Exercise Challenge in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS)]<ref name="Shukla2015" />
*2016, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27634186 The role of microbiota and intestinal permeability in the pathophysiology of autoimmune and neuroimmune processes with an emphasis on Inflammatory Bowel Disease Type 1 Diabetes and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome]<ref name="Morris, 2016" />
*2016, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27634186 The role of microbiota and intestinal permeability in the pathophysiology of autoimmune and neuroimmune processes with an emphasis on Inflammatory Bowel Disease Type 1 Diabetes and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome]<ref name="Morris, 2016" />
*2016, [https://microbiomejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40168-016-0171-4 Reduced diversity and altered composition of the gut microbiome in individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Giloteaux|first=Ludovic|author-link=Ludovic Giloteaux|last2=Goodrich|first2=Julia K.|author-link2=|last3=Walters|first3=William A.|author-link3=|last4=Levine|first4=Susan M.|author-link4=Susan Levine|last5=Ley|first5=Ruth E.|author-link5=|last6=Hanson|first6=Maureen R.|author-link6=Maureen Hanson|date=Dec 2016|title=Reduced diversity and altered composition of the gut microbiome in individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome|url=http://microbiomejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40168-016-0171-4|journal=Microbiome|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=|doi=10.1186/s40168-016-0171-4|issn=2049-2618|pmc=4918027|pmid=27338587|quote=|via=}}</ref>
*2016, [https://microbiomejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40168-016-0171-4 Reduced diversity and altered composition of the gut microbiome in individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome]<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Giloteaux | first = Ludovic | authorlink = Ludovic Giloteaux | last2 = Goodrich | first2 = Julia K. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Walters | first3 = William A. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Levine | first4 = Susan M. | authorlink4 = Susan Levine | last5 = Ley | first5 = Ruth E. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Hanson | first6 = Maureen R. | authorlink6 = Maureen Hanson | date = Dec 2016 | title = Reduced diversity and altered composition of the gut microbiome in individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome|url=http://microbiomejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40168-016-0171-4|journal=Microbiome|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=|doi=10.1186/s40168-016-0171-4|issn=2049-2618|pmc=4918027|pmid=27338587|quote=|via=}}</ref>
*2016, [http://www.nature.com/articles/srep19171 Support for the Microgenderome: Associations in a Human Clinical Population]<ref name="Wallis2016" />
*2016, [http://www.nature.com/articles/srep19171 Support for the Microgenderome: Associations in a Human Clinical Population]<ref name="Wallis2016" />
*2017, Fecal metagenomic profiles in subgroups of patients with [[ME/CFS|myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome]]<ref name="Nagy-Szakal, 2017" /> [https://microbiomejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40168-017-0261-y (Full Text)]  
*2017, Fecal metagenomic profiles in subgroups of patients with [[ME/CFS|myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome]]<ref name="Nagy-Szakal, 2017" /> [https://microbiomejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40168-017-0261-y (Full Text)]  
*2018, Does the microbiome and virome contribute to myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome?<ref name="Newberry, 2018" />  
*2018, Does the microbiome and virome contribute to myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome?<ref name="Newberry, 2018" />  
*2018, [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]] patients have alterations in their oral microbiome composition and function<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Taiwu|last2=Yu|first2=Lei|last3=Xu|first3=Cong|last4=Pan|first4=Keli|last5=Mo|first5=Minglu|last6=Duan|first6=Mingxiang|last7=Zhang|first7=Yao|last8=Xiong|first8=Hongyan|date=2018-09-11|title=Chronic fatigue syndrome patients have alterations in their oral microbiome composition and function|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0203503|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=13|issue=9|pages=e0203503|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0203503|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> [https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0203503 (Full Text)]  
*2018, [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]] patients have alterations in their oral microbiome composition and function<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Wang | first = Taiwu | last2 = Yu | first2 = Lei | last3 = Xu | first3 = Cong | last4 = Pan | first4 = Keli | last5 = Mo | first5 = Minglu | last6 = Duan | first6 = Mingxiang | last7 = Zhang | first7 = Yao | last8 = Xiong | first8 = Hongyan | date = 2018-09-11 | title = Chronic fatigue syndrome patients have alterations in their oral microbiome composition and function | url =https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0203503|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=13|issue=9| pages = e0203503|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0203503|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> [https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0203503 (Full Text)]  
*2018, Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome in the era of the human microbiome: persistent pathogens drive chronic symptoms by interfering with host [[metabolism]], [[gene expression]] and [[Immune system|immunity]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Proal|first=Amy|author-link=Amy Proal|last2=Marshall|first2=Trevor|author-link2=Trevor Marshall|author-link3=|author-link4=|author-link5=|date=Nov 2018|title=Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome in the era of the human microbiome: persistent pathogens drive chronic symptoms by interfering with host metabolism, gene expression and immunity|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fped.2018.00373/full|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|volume=|issue=|pages=|quote=|via=|doi=10.3389/fped.2018.00373}}</ref> [https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fped.2018.00373/full (Full text)]
*2018, Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome in the era of the human microbiome: persistent pathogens drive chronic symptoms by interfering with host [[metabolism]], [[gene expression]] and [[Immune system|immunity]]<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Proal | first = Amy | authorlink = Amy Proal | last2 = Marshall | first2 = Trevor | authorlink2 = Trevor Marshall | date = Nov 2018 | title = Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome in the era of the human microbiome: persistent pathogens drive chronic symptoms by interfering with host metabolism, gene expression and immunity|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fped.2018.00373/full|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|volume=|issue=|pages=|quote=|via=|doi=10.3389/fped.2018.00373}}</ref> [https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fped.2018.00373/full (Full text)]
* 2021, Potential role of microbiome in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Myalgic Encephalomyelits (CFS/ME)<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lupo|first=Giuseppe Francesco Damiano|author-link=|last2=Rocchetti|first2=Gabriele|author-link2=|last3=Lucini|first3=Luigi|author-link3=|last4=Lorusso|first4=Lorenzo|author-link4=Lorenzo Lorusso|last5=Manara|first5=Elena|author-link5=|last6=Bertelli|first6=Matteo|author-link6=|last7=Puglisi|first7=Edoardo|last8=Capelli|first8=Enrica|author-link8=Enrica Capelli|date=March 2021|title=Potential role of microbiome in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Myalgic Encephalomyelits (CFS/ME)|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-86425-6|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=7043|doi=10.1038/s41598-021-86425-6|issn=2045-2322|pmc=|pmid=33782445|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> - [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-86425-6 (Full text)]
* 2021, Potential role of microbiome in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Myalgic Encephalomyelits (CFS/ME)<ref name="Damiano2021">{{Cite journal | last = Lupo | first = Giuseppe Francesco Damiano | author-link = | last2 = Rocchetti | first2 = Gabriele | authorlink2 = | last3 = Lucini | first3 = Luigi | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lorusso | first4 = Lorenzo | authorlink4 = Lorenzo Lorusso | last5 = Manara | first5 = Elena | authorlink5 = | last6 = Bertelli | first6 = Matteo | authorlink6 = | last7 = Puglisi | first7 = Edoardo | last8 = Capelli | first8 = Enrica | authorlink8 = Enrica Capelli | date = March 2021 | title = Potential role of microbiome in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Myalgic Encephalomyelits (CFS/ME)|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-86425-6|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=11|issue=1 | pages = 7043|doi=10.1038/s41598-021-86425-6|issn=2045-2322|pmc=|pmid=33782445|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> - [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-86425-6 (Full text)]




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*[[American Gut]]
*[[American Gut]]
*[[British Gut Project]]
*[[British Gut Project]]
==See also==
*[[Gastrointestinal system]]
*[[Helminthic therapy]]
*[[Indoor microbiome]]
*[[Ken Lassesen's model]]
*[[Nasal microbiome]]
*[[Oral microbiome]]
*[[Probiotics]]


==Learn more==
==Learn more==
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*2016, [https://cfsremission.wordpress.com/2016/08/09/what-should-be-in-the-ideal-microbiome-test-for-cfs/ What should be in the ideal microbiome test for CFS] ''[[CFS Remission]]''
*2016, [https://cfsremission.wordpress.com/2016/08/09/what-should-be-in-the-ideal-microbiome-test-for-cfs/ What should be in the ideal microbiome test for CFS] ''[[CFS Remission]]''
*2016, [https://cfstreatment.blogspot.co.uk/2016/07/all-in-your-gut.html It's All in Your Gut] ''[[Onward Through the Fog]]''
*2016, [https://cfstreatment.blogspot.co.uk/2016/07/all-in-your-gut.html It's All in Your Gut] ''[[Onward Through the Fog]]''
*2016, [http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/07/07/gut-bacteria-are-different-in-people-with-chronic-fatigue-syndrome/ Gut Bacteria Are Different in People With Chronic Fatigue Syndrome] ''The New York Times''<ref>{{citation |last= Bakalar|first= Nicholas|date= 7 July 2016|title= Gut Bacteria Are Different in People With Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|url= http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/07/07/gut-bacteria-are-different-in-people-with-chronic-fatigue-syndrome/|newspaper= The New York Times|location= |access-date= 2016-12-13}}</ref>
*2016, [http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/07/07/gut-bacteria-are-different-in-people-with-chronic-fatigue-syndrome/ Gut Bacteria Are Different in People With Chronic Fatigue Syndrome] ''The New York Times''<ref>{{citation | last = Bakalar | first = Nicholas | date = 7 July 2016 | title = Gut Bacteria Are Different in People With Chronic Fatigue Syndrome|url= http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/07/07/gut-bacteria-are-different-in-people-with-chronic-fatigue-syndrome/|newspaper= The New York Times|location= |access-date= 2016-12-13}}</ref>
*2016, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2016/06/30/new-study-shows-chronic-fatigue-isnt-just-in-your-head-it-may-have-to-do-with-your-gut/ New study shows chronic fatigue syndrome may have to do with gut microbes] ''The Washington Post''<ref>{{citation |last= Cha|first= Ariana Eunjung|date= 30 June 2016|title= New study shows chronic fatigue syndrome may have to do with gut microbes|url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2016/06/30/new-study-shows-chronic-fatigue-isnt-just-in-your-head-it-may-have-to-do-with-your-gut/|newspaper= The Washington Post|location= |access-date= 2016-12-13}}</ref>
*2016, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2016/06/30/new-study-shows-chronic-fatigue-isnt-just-in-your-head-it-may-have-to-do-with-your-gut/ New study shows chronic fatigue syndrome may have to do with gut microbes] ''The Washington Post''<ref>{{citation | last = Cha | first = Ariana Eunjung | date = Jun 30, 2016 | title = New study shows chronic fatigue syndrome may have to do with gut microbes|url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2016/06/30/new-study-shows-chronic-fatigue-isnt-just-in-your-head-it-may-have-to-do-with-your-gut/|newspaper= The Washington Post|location= |access-date= 2016-12-13}}</ref>
*2016, [http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2016/06/indicator-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-found-gut-bacteria Indicator of chronic fatigue syndrome found in gut bacteria] ''Cornell Chronicle''<ref>{{citation |last= Ramanujan|first= Krishna|date= 24 June 2016|title= Indicator of chronic fatigue syndrome found in gut bacteria|url= http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2016/06/indicator-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-found-gut-bacteria|newspaper= Cornell Chronicle|location= New York|access-date= 2016-12-13}}</ref>
*2016, [http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2016/06/indicator-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-found-gut-bacteria Indicator of chronic fatigue syndrome found in gut bacteria] ''Cornell Chronicle''<ref>{{citation | last = Ramanujan | first = Krishna | date = 24 June 2016 | title = Indicator of chronic fatigue syndrome found in gut bacteria|url= http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2016/06/indicator-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-found-gut-bacteria|newspaper= Cornell Chronicle|location= New York|access-date= 2016-12-13}}</ref>
*2016, [http://www.cortjohnson.org/blog/2016/02/21/gut-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-gender-differences/ Gender Gut Wars: Australian ME/CFS Study Suggests Different Gut Treatment Protocols Needed For Men and Women] ''[[Health Rising]]''<ref>{{citation |last= Johnson|first= Cort|date= 21 February 2016|title= Gender Gut Wars: Australian ME/CFS Study Suggests Different Gut Treatment Protocols Needed For Men and Women|url= http://www.cortjohnson.org/blog/2016/02/21/gut-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-gender-differences/|newspaper= HealthRising|location= Houston|access-date= 2016-12-13}}</ref>
*2016, [http://www.cortjohnson.org/blog/2016/02/21/gut-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-gender-differences/ Gender Gut Wars: Australian ME/CFS Study Suggests Different Gut Treatment Protocols Needed For Men and Women] ''[[Health Rising]]''<ref>{{citation | last = Johnson | first = Cort | date = 21 February 2016 | title = Gender Gut Wars: Australian ME/CFS Study Suggests Different Gut Treatment Protocols Needed For Men and Women | url = http://www.cortjohnson.org/blog/2016/02/21/gut-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-gender-differences/|newspaper= HealthRising|location= Houston|access-date= 2016-12-13}}</ref>
*[https://cfsremission.wordpress.com/2016/04/02/vitamin-d-and-the-microbiome/ Vitamin D and the Microbiome] ''[[CFS Remission]]''
*[https://cfsremission.wordpress.com/2016/04/02/vitamin-d-and-the-microbiome/ Vitamin D and the Microbiome] ''[[CFS Remission]]''


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Probiotics]]
*[[Gastrointestinal system]]
*[[Helminthic therapy]]
*[[Ken Lassesen's model]]
*[[Nasal microbiome]]
*[[Nasal microbiome]]
*[[Oral microbiome]]
*[[Indoor microbiome]]
*[[Indoor microbiome]]
*[[Oral microbiome]]
*[[Dr Markov's chronic bacterial intoxication syndrome (CBIS) theory of ME/CFS]] (Dr Markov has evidence that ME/CFS is caused by a dysbiosis in the kidneys)
*[[Helminthic therapy]]
*[[Gastrointestinal system]]
*[[Probiotics]]
*[[Ken Lassesen's model]]


==References==
==References==
<references>
<references>
<ref name="Lakhan2010">{{Citation| doi = 10.1186/1743-7075-7-79| issn = 1743-7075| volume = 7|issue = | pages = 79| last1 = Lakhan| first1 = Shaheen E| last2 = Kirchgessner| first2 = Annette| title = Gut inflammation in chronic fatigue syndrome| journal = Nutrition & Metabolism| access-date = 2016-12-13| date = 2010-10-12| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2964729/| pmid = 20939923}}</ref>
<ref name="Lakhan2010">{{Citation| doi = 10.1186/1743-7075-7-79| issn = 1743-7075| volume = 7|issue = | pages = 79| last1 = Lakhan | first1 = Shaheen E| last2 = Kirchgessner | first2 = Annette| title = Gut inflammation in chronic fatigue syndrome| journal = Nutrition & Metabolism| access-date = 2016-12-13 | date = 2010-10-12| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2964729/| pmid = 20939923}}</ref>
<ref name="Maes2012">{{Citation| doi = 10.1016/j.jad.2011.09.010| issn = 1573-2517| volume = 136| issue = 3| pages = 909–917| last1 = Maes| first1 = Michael| last2 = Twisk| first2 = Frank N. M.| last3 = Kubera| first3 = Marta| last4 = Ringel| first4 = Karl| last5 = Leunis| first5 = Jean-Claude| last6 = Geffard| first6 = Michel| title = Increased IgA responses to the LPS of commensal bacteria is associated with inflammation and activation of cell-mediated immunity in chronic fatigue syndrome| journal = Journal of Affective Disorders| date = February 2012| pmid = 21967891}}</ref>
<ref name="Maes2012">{{Citation| doi = 10.1016/j.jad.2011.09.010| issn = 1573-2517| volume = 136 | issue = 3| pages = 909–917| last1 = Maes | first1 = Michael | last2 = Twisk | first2 = Frank N.M. | last3 = Kubera | first3 = Marta | last4 = Ringel | first4 = Karl | last5 = Leunis | first5 = Jean-Claude | last6 = Geffard | first6 = Michel| title = Increased IgA responses to the LPS of commensal bacteria is associated with inflammation and activation of cell-mediated immunity in chronic fatigue syndrome| journal = Journal of Affective Disorders| date = February 2012 | pmid = 21967891}}</ref>
<ref name="Shukla2015">{{Citation| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0145453| issn = 1932-6203| volume = 10| issue = 12| pages = 0145453| last1 = Shukla| first1 = Sanjay K.| last2 = Cook| first2 = Dane| last3 = Meyer| first3 = Jacob| last4 = Vernon| first4 = Suzanne D.| last5 = Le| first5 = Thao| last6 = Clevidence| first6 = Derek| last7 = Robertson| first7 = Charles E.| last8 = Schrodi| first8 = Steven J.| last9 = Yale| first9 = Steven| last10 = Frank| first10 = Daniel N.| title = Changes in Gut and Plasma Microbiome following Exercise Challenge in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS)| journal = PLOS ONE| access-date = 2016-12-13| date = 2015-12-18| url = http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0145453}}</ref>
<ref name="Shukla2015">{{Citation| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0145453| issn = 1932-6203| volume = 10 | issue = 12| pages = 0145453| last1 = Shukla | first1 = Sanjay K. | last2 = Cook | first2 = Dane | last3 = Meyer | first3 = Jacob| last4 = Vernon | first4 = Suzanne D. | last5 = Le | first5 = Thao | last6 = Clevidence | first6 = Derek | last7 = Robertson | first7 = Charles E. | last8 = Schrodi | first8 = Steven J. | last9 = Yale | first9 = Steven | last10 = Frank | first10 = Daniel N.| title = Changes in Gut and Plasma Microbiome following Exercise Challenge in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS)| journal = PLOS ONE| access-date = 2016-12-13 | date = 2015-12-18| url = http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0145453}}</ref>
<ref name="Jackson2015">{{citation
<ref name="Jackson2015">{{citation | last1 = Jackson | first1 = Melinda L | authorlink1 = Melinda Jackson | last2 = Butt | first2 = Henry L | authorlink2 = Henry Butt | last3 = Ball | first3 = Michelle | authorlink3 = Michelle Ball | last4 = Lewis | first4 = Donald P | authorlink4 = Donald Lewis | last5 = Bruck | first5 = Dorothy | authorlink5 = Dorothy Bruck | title = Sleep quality and the treatment of intestinal microbiota imbalance in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A pilot study | journal = Sleep Science | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 124-133 | date = 23 Oct 2015 | pmid = 26779319 | doi = 10.1016/j.slsci.2015.10.001 | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1984006315000632 }}</ref>
| last1   = Jackson         | first1 = Melinda L         | authorlink1 = Melinda Jackson
<ref name="Wallis2016">{{citation | last1 = Wallis | first1 = Amy| authorlink1 = Amy Wallis | last2 = Butt | first2 = Henry L | authorlink2 = Henry Butt | last3 = Ball | first3 = Michelle | authorlink3 = Michelle Ball | last4 = Lewis | first4 = Donald P | authorlink4 = Donald Lewis | last5 = Bruck | first5 = Dorothy | authorlink5 = Dorothy Bruck | title = Support for the Microgenderome: Associations in a Human Clinical Population | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = | pages = | date = 13 Jan 2016 |issue = | pmid = 26757840 | doi = 10.1038/srep19171 | url = http://www.nature.com/articles/srep19171 }}</ref>
| last2   = Butt             | first2 = Henry L           | authorlink2 = Henry Butt
<ref name="Maslowski2011">{{Citation| doi = 10.1038/ni0111-5| issn = 1529-2916| volume = 12 | issue = 1| pages = 5–9| last1 = Maslowski | first1 = Kendle M. | last2 = Mackay | first2 = Charles R.| title = Diet, gut microbiota and immune responses| journal = Nature Immunology | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21169997}}</ref>
| last3   = Ball             | first3 = Michelle           | authorlink3 = Michelle Ball
<ref name="koren2012">{{Citation| doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2012.07.008| issn = 1097-4172| volume = 150 | issue = 3| pages = 470–480| last1 = Koren | first1 = Omry | last2 = Goodrich | first2 = Julia K. | last3 = Cullender | first3 = Tyler C. | last4 = Spor | first4 = Aymé| last5 = Laitinen | first5 = Kirsi | last6 = Bäckhed | first6 = Helene Kling | last7 = Gonzalez | first7 = Antonio | last8 = Werner | first8 = Jeffrey J. | last9 = Angenent | first9 = Largus T. | last10 = Knight | first10 = Rob| last11 = Bäckhed | first11 = Fredrik | last12 = Isolauri | first12 = Erika | last13 = Salminen | first13 = Seppo | last14 = Ley | first14 = Ruth E.| title = Host remodeling of the gut microbiome and metabolic changes during pregnancy| journal = Cell| date = 2012-08-03 | pmid = 22863002}}</ref>
| last4   = Lewis           | first4 = Donald P           | authorlink4 = Donald Lewis
<ref name="Dinan2012">{{Citation| doi = 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.007| issn = 0306-4530| volume = 37 | issue = 9| pages = 1369–1378| last1 = Dinan | first1 = Timothy G. | last2 = Cryan | first2 = John F.| title = Regulation of the stress response by the gut microbiota: Implications for psychoneuroendocrinology| journal = Psychoneuroendocrinology| access-date = 2016-12-13 | date = September 2012| url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453012000935}}</ref>
| last5   = Bruck           | first5 = Dorothy           | authorlink5 = Dorothy Bruck
<ref name="Fremont2013">{{Citation| doi = 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2013.06.002| issn = 1095-8274| volume = 22 | issue = | pages = 50–56| last1 = Frémont | first1 = Marc| last2 = Coomans | first2 = Danny | last3 = Massart | first3 = Sebastien | last4 = De Meirleir | first4 = Kenny| title = High-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing reveals alterations of intestinal microbiota in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome patients| journal = Anaerobe | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23791918}}</ref>
| display-authors =
<ref name="Borody2012">{{Citation| issn = 1328-8040| volume = 31 | issue = 3| pages = 3| last1 = Borody | first1 = Thomas J. | last2 = Nowak | first2 = Anna | last3 = Finlayson | first3 = Sarah| title = The GI microbiome and its role in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A summary of bacteriotherapy| journal = Journal of the Australasian College of Nutritional and Environmental Medicine| access-date = 2016-12-13 | date = December 2012| url = http://www.cdd.com.au/pdf/publications/All%20Publications/2013%20-%20The%20GI%20microbiome%20and%20its%20role%20in%20CFS%20-%20ACNEM%20paper.pdf/}}</ref>
| title   = Sleep quality and the treatment of intestinal microbiota imbalance in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A pilot study
<ref name="Morris, 2016">{{Citation | last1 = Morris | first1 = Gerwyn | authorlink1 = Gerwyn Morris | last2 = Berk | first2 = Michael | authorlink2 = Michael Berk | last3 = Carvalho | first3 = A.F. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Caso | first4 = J.R. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Sanz | first5 = Y. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Maes | first6 = Michael | authorlink6 = Michael Maes | title = The role of microbiota and intestinal permeability in the pathophysiology of autoimmune and neuroimmune processes with an emphasis on Inflammatory Bowel Disease Type 1 Diabetes and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. | journal = Current Pharmaceutical Design | volume = | issue = | pages = | date = 2016   | pmid = 27634186 }}</ref>
| journal = Sleep Science | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 124-133
<ref name="Nagy-Szakal, 2017">{{Citation | last1 = Nagy-Szakal | first1 = Dorottya | authorlink1 = Dorottya Nagy-Szakal | last2 = Williams | first2 = Brent L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Mishra | first3 = Nischay | authorlink3 = | last4 = Che | first4 = Xiaoyu | authorlink4 = | last5 = Lee | first5 = Bohyun | authorlink5 = | last6 = Bateman | first6 = Lucinda | authorlink6 = Lucinda Bateman | last7 = Klimas | first7 = Nancy G. | authorlink7 = Nancy Klimas | last8 = Komaroff | first8 = Anthony L. | authorlink8 = Anthony Komaroff | last9 = Levine | first9 = Susan | authorlink9 = Susan Levine | last10 = Montoya | first10 = Jose G. | authorlink10 = Jose Montoya | last11 = Peterson | first11 = Daniel L. | authorlink11 = Daniel Peterson | last12 = Ramanan | first12 = Devi | authorlink12 = | last13 = Jain | first13 = Komal | authorlink13 = | last14 = Eddy | first14 = Meredith L. | authorlink14 = | last15 = Hornig | first15 = Mady | authorlink15 = Mady Hornig | last16 = Lipkin | first16 = W. Ian | authorlink16 = Ian Lipkin | title = Fecal metagenomic profiles in subgroups of patients with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome | journal = Microbiome | volume = 5 | issue = 44 | pages = | date = 2017 | pmid = | doi = 10.1186/s40168-017-0261-y }}</ref>
| date   = 23 Oct 2015
<ref name="Newberry, 2018">{{Citation | last1 = Newberry | first1 = F. | authorlink1 = | last2 = Hsieh | first2 = S.-Y. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Wileman | first3 = T. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Carding | first4 = S.R. | authorlink4 = Simon Carding | title = Does the microbiome and virome contribute to myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome? | journal = Clinical Science | volume = 132 | issue = 5 | pages = 523–542 | date = 2018 | pmid = | doi = 10.1042/CS20171330 }}</ref>
| pmid   = 26779319 | doi = 10.1016/j.slsci.2015.10.001
| url     = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1984006315000632
}}</ref>
<ref name="Wallis2016">{{citation
| last1   = Wallis           | first1 = Amy               | authorlink1 = Amy Wallis
| last2   = Butt             | first2 = Henry L           | authorlink2 = Henry Butt
| last3   = Ball             | first3 = Michelle           | authorlink3 = Michelle Ball
| last4   = Lewis           | first4 = Donald P           | authorlink4 = Donald Lewis
| last5   = Bruck           | first5 = Dorothy           | authorlink5 = Dorothy Bruck
| display-authors =
| title   = Support for the Microgenderome: Associations in a Human Clinical Population
| journal = Scientific Reports | volume = | pages =  
| date   = 13 Jan 2016 |issue = | pmid   = 26757840 | doi = 10.1038/srep19171
| url     = http://www.nature.com/articles/srep19171
}}</ref>
<ref name="Maslowski2011">{{Citation| doi = 10.1038/ni0111-5| issn = 1529-2916| volume = 12| issue = 1| pages = 5–9| last1 = Maslowski| first1 = Kendle M.| last2 = Mackay| first2 = Charles R.| title = Diet, gut microbiota and immune responses| journal = Nature Immunology| date = January 2011| pmid = 21169997}}</ref>
<ref name="koren2012">{{Citation| doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2012.07.008| issn = 1097-4172| volume = 150| issue = 3| pages = 470–480| last1 = Koren| first1 = Omry| last2 = Goodrich| first2 = Julia K.| last3 = Cullender| first3 = Tyler C.| last4 = Spor| first4 = Aymé| last5 = Laitinen| first5 = Kirsi| last6 = Bäckhed| first6 = Helene Kling| last7 = Gonzalez| first7 = Antonio| last8 = Werner| first8 = Jeffrey J.| last9 = Angenent| first9 = Largus T.| last10 = Knight| first10 = Rob| last11 = Bäckhed| first11 = Fredrik| last12 = Isolauri| first12 = Erika| last13 = Salminen| first13 = Seppo| last14 = Ley| first14 = Ruth E.| title = Host remodeling of the gut microbiome and metabolic changes during pregnancy| journal = Cell| date = 2012-08-03| pmid = 22863002}}</ref>
<ref name="Dinan2012">{{Citation| doi = 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.007| issn = 0306-4530| volume = 37| issue = 9| pages = 1369–1378| last1 = Dinan| first1 = Timothy G.| last2 = Cryan| first2 = John F.| title = Regulation of the stress response by the gut microbiota: Implications for psychoneuroendocrinology| journal = Psychoneuroendocrinology| access-date = 2016-12-13| date = September 2012| url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453012000935}}</ref>
<ref name="Fremont2013">{{Citation| doi = 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2013.06.002| issn = 1095-8274| volume = 22| issue = | pages = 50–56| last1 = Frémont| first1 = Marc| last2 = Coomans| first2 = Danny| last3 = Massart| first3 = Sebastien| last4 = De Meirleir| first4 = Kenny| title = High-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing reveals alterations of intestinal microbiota in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome patients| journal = Anaerobe| date = August 2013| pmid = 23791918}}</ref>
<ref name="Borody2012">{{Citation| issn = 1328-8040| volume = 31| issue = 3| pages = 3| last1 = Borody| first1 = Thomas J.| last2 = Nowak| first2 = Anna| last3 = Finlayson| first3 = Sarah| title = The GI microbiome and its role in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A summary of bacteriotherapy| journal = Journal of the Australasian College of Nutritional and Environmental Medicine| access-date = 2016-12-13| date = December 2012| url = http://www.cdd.com.au/pdf/publications/All%20Publications/2013%20-%20The%20GI%20microbiome%20and%20its%20role%20in%20CFS%20-%20ACNEM%20paper.pdf/}}</ref>
<ref name="Morris, 2016">{{Citation
| last1   = Morris           | first1 = Gerwyn         | authorlink1 = Gerwyn Morris  
| last2   = Berk             | first2 = Michael         | authorlink2 = Michael Berk
| last3   = Carvalho         | first3 = A.F.           | authorlink3 =  
| last4   = Caso             | first4 = J.R.           | authorlink4 =  
| last5   = Sanz             | first5 = Y.             | authorlink5 =  
| last6   = Maes             | first6 = Michael         | authorlink6 = Michael Maes  
| title   = The role of microbiota and intestinal permeability in the pathophysiology of autoimmune and neuroimmune processes with an emphasis on Inflammatory Bowel Disease Type 1 Diabetes and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.
| journal = Current Pharmaceutical Design     | volume =   | issue =   | pages =  
| date   = 2016
| pmid   = 27634186
}}
</ref>
<ref name="Nagy-Szakal, 2017">{{Citation
| last1   = Nagy-Szakal   | first1 = Dorottya       | authorlink1 = Dorottya Nagy-Szakal
| last2   = Williams       | first2 = Brent L.       | authorlink2 =  
| last3   = Mishra         | first3 = Nischay       | authorlink3 =  
| last4   = Che           | first4 = Xiaoyu         | authorlink4 =  
| last5   = Lee           | first5 = Bohyun         | authorlink5 =  
| last6   = Bateman       | first6 = Lucinda       | authorlink6 = Lucinda Bateman
| last7   = Klimas         | first7 = Nancy G.       | authorlink7 = Nancy Klimas  
| last8   = Komaroff       | first8 = Anthony L.     | authorlink8 = Anthony Komaroff
| last9   = Levine         | first9 = Susan         | authorlink9 = Susan Levine
| last10   = Montoya       | first10 = Jose G.       | authorlink10 = Jose Montoya
| last11   = Peterson     | first11 = Daniel L.     | authorlink11 = Daniel Peterson
| last12   = Ramanan       | first12 = Devi         | authorlink12 =  
| last13   = Jain         | first13 = Komal         | authorlink13 =  
| last14   = Eddy         | first14 = Meredith L.   | authorlink14 =  
| last15   = Hornig       | first15 = Mady         | authorlink15 = Mady Hornig
| last16   = Lipkin       | first16 = W. Ian       | authorlink16 = Ian Lipkin
| title   = Fecal metagenomic profiles in subgroups of patients with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome
| journal = Microbiome   | volume = 5   | issue = 44   | pages =  
| date   = 2017
| pmid   =  
| doi     = 10.1186/s40168-017-0261-y
}}
</ref>
<ref name="Newberry, 2018">{{Citation
| last1   = Newberry         | first1 = F.                 | authorlink1 =  
| last2   = Hsieh             | first2 = S.-Y.             | authorlink2 =  
| last3   = Wileman           | first3 = T.                 | authorlink3 =  
| last4   = Carding           | first4 = S. R.             | authorlink4 = Simon Carding
| title   = Does the microbiome and virome contribute to myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome?
| journal = Clinical Science   | volume = 132   | issue = 5   | pages = 523–542
| date   = 2018
| pmid   =  
| doi     = 10.1042/CS20171330
}}
</ref>
</references>
</references>


[[Category:Body systems]]
[[Category:Body systems]]
[[Category:Microbiome]]
[[Category:Microbiome]]

Latest revision as of 13:58, July 25, 2023

The microbiome is the community of microorganisms (such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses) that inhabit a particular environment, especially the human body. [1]

Anatomical areas[edit | edit source]

The microorganisms live on the skin and genitals and in the nose, ears, mouth and gut. Dysbiosis or an imbalance in this community may play a role in the pathophysiology of chronic fatigue syndrome.[citation needed]

Gut flora[edit | edit source]

The gut microbiome is a complex community of trillions of microorganisms residing in the intestines. 99% of bacteria in the gut are anaerobes.

Skin flora[edit | edit source]

Nose flora[edit | edit source]

Oral flora[edit | edit source]

ME/CFS[edit | edit source]

A growing body of evidence suggests that an altered microbiome; mucosal barrier dysfunction;[2] the translocation or crossing of bacteria from the gut into the bloodstream; and subsequent immune response may pay a role in the pathophysiology of myalgic encephalomyelitis\chronic fatigue syndrome.

A 2021 study by Damiano and colleagues observed significant differences in several types of bacteria in the saliva and gut in CFS/ME patients compared to controls, but was unable to determine if the alteration of the microbiome is a cause or a consequence of the onset of CFS/ME and if the changes in the microbial composition are related to any of the several secondary symptoms.[3] The study showed that the intestinal microbial profile recorded in a group of ME/CFS patients was consistent with the reported for other autoimmune conditions, such as Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis and systemic lupus erythematous.[citation needed]

Immune response[edit | edit source]

A study of 128 ME/CFS patients found significantly increased IgA response to lipopolysaccharides from the cell walls of commensal bacteria. Increased IgA response was associated with increased serum IL-1, TNFα, neopterin and elastase. The study concluded that increased translocation of commensal bacteria may be responsible for the disease activity in some ME/CFS patients.[4]

Dysbiosis[edit | edit source]

There is strong evidence that dysbiosis or an imbalance in the microbial ecology of the gut plays a role in the symptoms of ME/CFS. ME/CFS patients have higher levels of D-lactic acid bacteria,[5] decreased levels of bifidobacteria,[6] and may suffer from small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) at higher rates.[citation needed]

Exercise[edit | edit source]

A small study of ten CFS patients found significant changes in the composition of the microbiome and increased bacterial translocation (movement from the intestine into the bloodstream following exercise). In the blood, the study found increased Clostridium fifteen minutes after exercise and increased bacilli 48 hours later.[7][8][citation needed]

Sleep[edit | edit source]

In a very small study, CFS patients treated with erythromycin who had clinical response (i.e., reduced streptococcus) had improved sleep. Higher lactobacillus was associated with poorer mood.[9]

Gender[edit | edit source]

A study of 274 ME/CFS patients found sex-specific interactions between Firmicutes (Clostridium, Streptococcus, Lactobacillus and Enterococcus) and ME/CFS symptoms (including neurological, immune and mood symptoms) and symptoms in spite of similar overall composition across sexes.[10]

Factors affecting microbiome[edit | edit source]

Diet[edit | edit source]

The food we eat has a considerable effect on the composition of the intestinal microbiota.[11]

Viral infection[edit | edit source]

Viruses can cause shifts in the gut microbiome.

In mice, the influenza virus leads to injury of both the lungs (the primary site of infection) and the intestinal tract, even when there is no evidence of viral replication in the gut, and causes decreases Lactobacillus and Lactococcus species and increases in Enterobacteriaceae.[12]

Pregnancy[edit | edit source]

Gut microbiota change dramatically from the first trimester to the third trimester of pregnancy. During the first trimester, there is an overrepresentation of 18 bacterial groups, mainly Faecalibacterium, a butyrate producer that has been shown to improve symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease.[13]

During the third trimester, populations of pro-inflammatory bacteria species such as proteobacteria and actinobacteria increase and there is a reduction in diversity. Populations of Faecalibacterium decrease.[13] Overall bacterial load increases over the course of pregnancy.[14]

Nervous system[edit | edit source]

The intestinal microbiota play a major role in the gut-brain axis with consequences for both neurological development and host behavior.

Stress[edit | edit source]

There is growing evidence that the microbiome plays an important role in the stress response. Animals raised in a germ-free environment show an exaggerated HPA response to psychological stress which normalizes when Bifidobacterium infantis is introduced. Escherichia coli can activate the HPA.[15]

Stress also increases intestinal permeability.

Planned studies[edit | edit source]

British patient charity Invest in ME is raising funds for a gut microbiome study at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom led by professor Simon Carding.[16]

Funds are being raised by patients (originally led by the late Vanessa Li) for Ian Lipkin and Mady Hornig of Columbia University in the United States to perform a study, called the ME/CFS Monster Study, looking at many areas including the gut microbiome in ME/CFS patients. Fundraising efforts are led by the Microbe Discovery Project.

Notable studies[edit | edit source]


Commercial testers[edit | edit source]

Academic projects[edit | edit source]

Learn more[edit | edit source]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. "Definition of MICROBIOME". Merrian-Webster Medical Dictionary. Retrieved February 20, 2021.
  2. 2.0 2.1 Lakhan, Shaheen E; Kirchgessner, Annette (October 12, 2010), "Gut inflammation in chronic fatigue syndrome", Nutrition & Metabolism, 7: 79, doi:10.1186/1743-7075-7-79, ISSN 1743-7075, PMID 20939923, retrieved December 13, 2016
  3. 3.0 3.1 Lupo, Giuseppe Francesco Damiano; Rocchetti, Gabriele; Lucini, Luigi; Lorusso, Lorenzo; Manara, Elena; Bertelli, Matteo; Puglisi, Edoardo; Capelli, Enrica (March 2021). "Potential role of microbiome in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Myalgic Encephalomyelits (CFS/ME)". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 7043. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-86425-6. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 33782445.
  4. 4.0 4.1 Maes, Michael; Twisk, Frank N.M.; Kubera, Marta; Ringel, Karl; Leunis, Jean-Claude; Geffard, Michel (February 2012), "Increased IgA responses to the LPS of commensal bacteria is associated with inflammation and activation of cell-mediated immunity in chronic fatigue syndrome", Journal of Affective Disorders, 136 (3): 909–917, doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.09.010, ISSN 1573-2517, PMID 21967891
  5. Sheedy, John R.; Wettenhall, Richard E. H.; Scanlon, Denis; Gooley, Paul R.; Lewis, Donald P.; McGregor, Neil; Stapleton, David I.; Butt, Henry L.; De Meirleir, Kenny L. (July 2009). "Increased d-lactic Acid intestinal bacteria in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome". In Vivo (Athens, Greece). 23 (4): 621–628. ISSN 0258-851X. PMID 19567398.
  6. Logan, Alan C; Venket Rao, A; Irani, Dinaz (June 2003). "Chronic fatigue syndrome: lactic acid bacteria may be of therapeutic value". Medical Hypotheses. 60 (6): 915–923. doi:10.1016/S0306-9877(03)00096-3.
  7. 7.0 7.1 Shukla, Sanjay K.; Cook, Dane; Meyer, Jacob; Vernon, Suzanne D.; Le, Thao; Clevidence, Derek; Robertson, Charles E.; Schrodi, Steven J.; Yale, Steven; Frank, Daniel N. (December 18, 2015), "Changes in Gut and Plasma Microbiome following Exercise Challenge in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS)", PLOS ONE, 10 (12): 0145453, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0145453, ISSN 1932-6203, retrieved December 13, 2016
  8. Johnson, Cort (December 21, 2015), "Exercise Triggers Gut Changes in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS)", HealthRising, Houston, retrieved December 12, 2016
  9. 9.0 9.1 Jackson, Melinda L; Butt, Henry L; Ball, Michelle; Lewis, Donald P; Bruck, Dorothy (October 23, 2015), "Sleep quality and the treatment of intestinal microbiota imbalance in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A pilot study", Sleep Science, 8 (3): 124–133, doi:10.1016/j.slsci.2015.10.001, PMID 26779319
  10. 10.0 10.1 Wallis, Amy; Butt, Henry L; Ball, Michelle; Lewis, Donald P; Bruck, Dorothy (January 13, 2016), "Support for the Microgenderome: Associations in a Human Clinical Population", Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/srep19171, PMID 26757840
  11. Maslowski, Kendle M.; Mackay, Charles R. (January 2011), "Diet, gut microbiota and immune responses", Nature Immunology, 12 (1): 5–9, doi:10.1038/ni0111-5, ISSN 1529-2916, PMID 21169997
  12. Racaniello, Vincent (December 10, 2014), "How influenza virus infection might lead to gastrointestinal symptoms", Virology Blog, New York, retrieved December 12, 2016
  13. 13.0 13.1 Koren, Omry; Goodrich, Julia K.; Cullender, Tyler C.; Spor, Aymé; Laitinen, Kirsi; Bäckhed, Helene Kling; Gonzalez, Antonio; Werner, Jeffrey J.; Angenent, Largus T.; Knight, Rob; Bäckhed, Fredrik; Isolauri, Erika; Salminen, Seppo; Ley, Ruth E. (August 3, 2012), "Host remodeling of the gut microbiome and metabolic changes during pregnancy", Cell, 150 (3): 470–480, doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.07.008, ISSN 1097-4172, PMID 22863002
  14. http://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-53849104768&origin=inward&txGid=B73C4858FB9D5F216C9F222F22386A44.iqs8TDG0Wy6BURhzD3nFA%3a2
  15. Dinan, Timothy G.; Cryan, John F. (September 2012), "Regulation of the stress response by the gut microbiota: Implications for psychoneuroendocrinology", Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37 (9): 1369–1378, doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.007, ISSN 0306-4530, retrieved December 13, 2016
  16. Invest in ME – UK gut microbiota research
  17. Sheedy, John R.; Wettenhall, Richard E. H.; Scanlon, Denis; Gooley, Paul R.; Lewis, Donald P.; McGregor, Neil; Stapleton, David I.; Butt, Henry L.; De Meirleir, Kenny L. (July 2009). "Increased d-lactic Acid intestinal bacteria in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome". In Vivo (Athens, Greece). 23 (4): 621–628. ISSN 0258-851X. PMID 19567398.
  18. Borody, Thomas J.; Nowak, Anna; Finlayson, Sarah (December 2012), "The GI microbiome and its role in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A summary of bacteriotherapy", Journal of the Australasian College of Nutritional and Environmental Medicine, 31 (3): 3, ISSN 1328-8040, retrieved December 13, 2016
  19. Frémont, Marc; Coomans, Danny; Massart, Sebastien; De Meirleir, Kenny (August 2013), "High-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing reveals alterations of intestinal microbiota in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome patients", Anaerobe, 22: 50–56, doi:10.1016/j.anaerobe.2013.06.002, ISSN 1095-8274, PMID 23791918
  20. Morris, Gerwyn; Berk, Michael; Carvalho, A.F.; Caso, J.R.; Sanz, Y.; Maes, Michael (2016), "The role of microbiota and intestinal permeability in the pathophysiology of autoimmune and neuroimmune processes with an emphasis on Inflammatory Bowel Disease Type 1 Diabetes and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.", Current Pharmaceutical Design, PMID 27634186
  21. Giloteaux, Ludovic; Goodrich, Julia K.; Walters, William A.; Levine, Susan M.; Ley, Ruth E.; Hanson, Maureen R. (December 2016). "Reduced diversity and altered composition of the gut microbiome in individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome". Microbiome. 4 (1). doi:10.1186/s40168-016-0171-4. ISSN 2049-2618. PMC 4918027. PMID 27338587.
  22. Nagy-Szakal, Dorottya; Williams, Brent L.; Mishra, Nischay; Che, Xiaoyu; Lee, Bohyun; Bateman, Lucinda; Klimas, Nancy G.; Komaroff, Anthony L.; Levine, Susan; Montoya, Jose G.; Peterson, Daniel L.; Ramanan, Devi; Jain, Komal; Eddy, Meredith L.; Hornig, Mady; Lipkin, W. Ian (2017), "Fecal metagenomic profiles in subgroups of patients with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome", Microbiome, 5 (44), doi:10.1186/s40168-017-0261-y
  23. Newberry, F.; Hsieh, S.-Y.; Wileman, T.; Carding, S.R. (2018), "Does the microbiome and virome contribute to myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome?", Clinical Science, 132 (5): 523–542, doi:10.1042/CS20171330
  24. Wang, Taiwu; Yu, Lei; Xu, Cong; Pan, Keli; Mo, Minglu; Duan, Mingxiang; Zhang, Yao; Xiong, Hongyan (September 11, 2018). "Chronic fatigue syndrome patients have alterations in their oral microbiome composition and function". PLOS ONE. 13 (9): e0203503. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0203503. ISSN 1932-6203.
  25. Proal, Amy; Marshall, Trevor (November 2018). "Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome in the era of the human microbiome: persistent pathogens drive chronic symptoms by interfering with host metabolism, gene expression and immunity". Frontiers in Pediatrics. doi:10.3389/fped.2018.00373.
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