List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens

From MEpedia, a crowd-sourced encyclopedia of ME and CFS science and history
Revision as of 14:46, March 27, 2021 by Hip (talk | contribs) (Added schizophrenia link to Bartonella henselae)

Many chronic diseases are linked to infectious pathogens (meaning the pathogens are found in patients with the disease much more frequently than in healthy controls).[1][2] When a pathogen such as a virus, bacterium, fungus or protozoan is linked to a disease, researchers will start to investigate whether the pathogen might be the cause the disease, or might be playing a causal role.


Links to chronic disease[edit | edit source]

There are several explanations for why a pathogen is found associated with a disease:

  • The pathogen is an "innocent bystander" that plays no causal role in the disease, but is more prevalent in patients with the disease (for example because the disease compromises the immune response).
  • The pathogen increases the risk of getting the disease, but does not actually cause the disease. For example, genital herpes increases the risk of catching HIV, but does not cause AIDS.[3]
  • The pathogen causes the disease, but only combined with other causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxic exposure).
  • The pathogen is a singular cause of the disease.

Diseases associated with infectious pathogens[edit | edit source]

In the following list of diseases linked to infectious pathogens, there is a good possibility that the pathogens might cause the disease, but further research is need to work out whether these pathogens do play a causal role. 

This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to infectious pathogens, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of pathogen-associated diseases.

Disease Pathogens Linked to the Disease
Acute Flaccid Myelitis (AFM) Acute Flaccid Myelitis, a serious but rare neurological disease, is believed to be associated with the EV-D68 enterovirus[4] EV-D68 is a non-polio enterovirus.[4]
Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria porphyromonas gingivalis,[5] chlamydia pneumoniae[6] and helicobacter pylori,[7] and with the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii.[8]

Herpes simplex virus 1 is associated with Alzheimer's disease in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the herpes virus to enter the brain).[9]

Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.[10]HHV-6A and HHV-7 have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.[11]

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with echovirus, an enterovirus infection of the central nervous system,[12] and with retrovirus[13] activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus).
Anorexia nervosa Infection with borrelia[14] species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa. In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with streptococcus[15] species bacteria. Anorexia (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.[16]
Anxiety disorder Anxiety is associated with cytomegalovirus,[17][18] and the bacterium helicobacter pylori.[19] Anxiety is associated with toxoplasma gondii,[20] or at least associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.[21] Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to Epstein-Barr virus.[22]
Asthma Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,[23] and the bacterium chlamydia pneumoniae.[24] Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.[25]
Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus,[26] and the bacteria helicobacter pylori[27] and chlamydia pneumoniae.[28]
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria borrelia burgdorferi and streptococcus, and with HIV and enterovirus 71.

Febrile seizures due to human herpesvirus 6 or subtype A are a risk factor for ADHD. Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth, and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.[29]

Autism Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella virus or cytomegalovirus.[30][31] Clostridia bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).[32]
Autoimmune diseases Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with enteroviruses such as Coxsackie B virus.[33] Autoimmune diseases are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,[34] cytomegalovirus,[35] parvovirus B19,[36] and HIV,[37] and the bacterium mycobacterium tuberculosis.[38] Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,[39] and helicobacter pylori.[40]
Bipolar disorder Bipolar disorder is associated with bornavirus,[41] and with Borrelia species bacteria.[14] The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with herpes simplex virus 1.[42]
Cancer

Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to infectious pathogen causes.[43][44] In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the pathogens currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some pathogens proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to pathogens that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.)

Adrenal tumor is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.[45]
Anal cancer is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).[46]
Bladder cancer can be caused by schistosoma helminths.[47]
Brain tumor. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with cytomegalovirus,[48] BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.[49]
Breast cancer is associated with bovine leukemia virus,[50] mouse mammary tumor virus, Epstein-Barr virus, and human papillomaviruses (HPV).[51]
Carcinoid tumors are associated with enterovirus infections.[52]
Cervical cancer can be caused by HPV.[53]
Colorectal cancer is associated with the bacteria helicobacter pylori, streptococcus bovis and fusobacterium nucleatum,[54] with HPV,[55] and with the helminth schistosoma japonicum.[56] JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.[57]
Gallbladder cancer is associated with the bacterium salmonella typhi.[58]
Hodgkin's lymphoma is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,[59] hepatitis C virus,[60] and HIV.[61]
Kaposi's Sarcoma can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
Liver cancer. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,[62] and by the helminth schistosoma japonicum.[63]
Lung cancer is associated with the bacterium clamydia pneumoniae,[64] with HPV, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.[65]
Leukemia. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
Mesothelioma is associated with simian virus 40,[66] especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.[67]
Oropharyngeal cancer can be caused by HPV.
Ovarian cancer is associated with mumps virus.[68]
Pancreatic cancer is associated with hepatitis B virus,[69] and the bacterium helicobacter pylori.[70]
Prostate cancer is associated with BK virus,[71] and HPV.[72]
Skin neoplasm is associated with HPV.[73]
Squamous cell carcinoma is associated with HPV.[74]
Stomach cancer is associated with the bacterium helicobacter pylori.[75]
Thyroid cancer is associated with simian virus 40.[76]

Chronic fatigue syndrome ME/CFS is associated with enteroviruses (such as coxsackie B virus),[77][78] partial reactivation of Epstein-Barr virus,[79] human herpesvirus 6A,[80] human herpesvirus 7,[81] and parvovirus B19.[82][83] The intracellular bacterium chlamydia pneumoniae[84] is also linked chronic fatigue syndrome.
Chronic myocarditis Chronic myocarditis is associated with the enterovirus coxsackievirus B virus.[85]
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema) is associated with chlamydia pneumoniae[86] and Epstein-Barr virus.[87]
Crohn's disease Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus candida tropicalis, in tandem with the bacteria escherichia coli (e-coli) and serratia marcescens.[88]

One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).[89]

Crohn's disease is associated with mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.[90]

In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,[91][92] but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when these three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
Coronary heart disease Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium chlamydia pneumoniae.[93]
Dementia Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, West Nile virus, bornavirus, and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with borrelia[14] species bacteria.
Depression

Depression is associated with cytomegalovirus[17] and West Nile virus,[94] and the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii.[95] It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.[96][97]

Major depressive disorder is associated with bornavirus,[41] as well as bartonella[98] and borrelia[14] species bacteria.
Seasonal affective disorder is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.[99]

Diabetes mellitus type 1 Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,[100][101] such as echovirus 4,[102] echovirus 16,[103] and coxsackie B4 virus.[104][105] coxsackie B virus can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms).[106]

Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).[107]

In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.[108] Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the picornavirus family.

Diabetes mellitus type 2 Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,[109] hepatitis C virus,[110] enteroviruses[101] and ljungan virus,[111] In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from a staphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.[112]
Dilated cardiomyopathy Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with enteroviruses such as Coxsackie B virus.[113]
Epilepsy Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with infection by human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B (HHV-6B) of the astrocyte cells of the brain.[114][115] Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.[116]
Guillain-Barré syndrome Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium campylobacter jejuni,[117] and with the viruses cytomegalovirus[118] and enterovirus.[119]
Hypertension Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as coxsackievirus B5 and echovirus.[120]
Infertility Infertility is associated with an infection of the endometrium with the A variant of human herpesvirus 6 virus (HHV-6A ).[121]
Interstitial cystitis The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomavirus, and in particular BK virus.[122] Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with Epstein-Barr virus.[123]
Irritable bowel syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria Escherichia coli[124] and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis,[125] the protozoan parasite Giardia lamblia,[126] and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite blastocystis hominis.[127] Irritable bowel syndrome in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.[16]
Low back pain Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.[128][129]
Lupus Lupus is associated with the viruses parvovirus B19,[130] Epstein-Barr virus,[131] and cytomegalovirus.[132]
Macular degeneration Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high titers of cytomegalovirus.[133][134]
Metabolic syndrome Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae[135] and helicobacter pylori, as well as the viruses cytomegalovirus] and herpes simplex virus 1.[136]
Multiple sclerosis Multiple sclerosis, a demyelinating disease, is associated with Epstein-Barr virus[137] (and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus[138] which is found in the brain tissues of most ME patients,[139] human herpesvirus 6,[140] human herpesvirus 6 variant A,[141] varicella zoster virus,[142] and the bacterium chlamydia pneumoniae.[143]
Myocardial infarction Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with chlamydia pneumoniae,[144] cytomegalovirus[145] and Coxsackie B virus (an enterovirus).[146]

Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are also associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.[147] An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.[146]

Myopia Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of measles, rubella, pertussis and mumps.[148]
Obesity

Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.[149][150] It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36 (and likewise adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37) will develop increased obesity.[151] And it is known adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).[152]

Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.[153][154] Obesity is also associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as clostridium, staphylococcus, streptococcus, and helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more bacteroidetes bacteria.[155]

Obsessive-compulsive disorder Obsessive-compulsive disorder is associated with streptococcus[17] and borrelia[14] species bacteria.
Panic disorder Panic disorder is associated with borrelia[14] and bartonella species bacteria.[98]
Parkinson's disease Parkinson's disease is associated with enterovirus,[156] influenza A virus,[157] as well as the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii.[158]
Psoriasis Psoriasis is associated with a helicobacter pylori trigger.[159]
Rheumatoid arthritis Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacterium porphyromonas gingivalis,[160] and the bacterium proteus mirabilis.[161] Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with parvovirus B19.[130] Antibodies to borrelia outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.[162]
Sarcoidosis Sarcoidosis is associated with mycobacteria[163] species and the bacterium helicobacter pylori.[164]
Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to Epstein-Barr virus.[165] Schizophrenia is associated with bornavirus,[41] the bacterium chlamydia trachomatis,[166] as well as borrelia species bacteria.[14] Schizophrenia is linked to Bartonella henselae.[167]

Schizophrenia is also linked to neonatal infection with coxsackie B virus (an enterovirus, which one study found carries an increased risk of adult onset schizophrenia.[168] Prenatal exposure to orthomyxoviridae influenza virus in the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk of schizophrenia by 7-fold.[169]

Sjögren's syndrome Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the enterovirus coxsackie B virus.[170]
Stroke Persistent enterovirus infection (Coxsackie B virus or echovirus) is linked to the development of acute stroke.[171] Stroke is associated with the bacteria chlamydia pneumoniae,[172] helicobacter pylori,[173] mycobacterium tuberculosis,[174] and mycoplasma_pneumoniae,[175] as well as the virus varicella zoster virus[176] and the fungus histoplasma.[177]
Tourette syndrome Tourette's is associated with the bacterium streptococcus.[178] Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria mycoplasma pneumoniae,[179] chlamydia pneumoniae, chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii.[180]
Vasculitis Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,[130] and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established and proven cause of vasculitis.

Pathogens as a cause of chronic diseases[edit | edit source]

One champion of the theory that pathogens are the likely cause of many chronic diseases is evolutionary biologist Professor Paul W. Ewald, who is one of an increasing number of researchers who believe that many chronic diseases of presently unknown etiology will probably turn out to be caused by persistent low-level microbial infections.[181][182]

Professor Ewald supports his thesis with an argument from evolutionary biology, explaining that "chronic diseases, if they are common and damaging, must be powerful eliminators of any genetic instruction that may cause them".[181] In other words, a disease-causing gene which reduces an animal's survival and its creation of offspring will tend to eliminate itself over a number of generations. Therefore such genetic diseases are self-extinguishing.

Professor Ewald explains that the only genetic diseases which are likely to persist are those which provide a compensating benefit. For example, genes that encode for sickle cell anemia disease are maintained and persist down the generations, as these genes also protect against malaria.

One large meta-analysis found the vast majority of diseases have a very small genetic contribution of only 5% to 10% at most. Though notable exceptions include Crohn's disease, celiac disease and macular degeneration, which have a genetic contribution of about 40% to 50%.[183]

Infectious pathogens are one of several potential causes of disease; other causal factors include environmental toxins (naturally-occurring and man-made), radiation, genetics, epigenetics, events during pregnancy, stress, diet and lifestyle factors.

More than one causal factor may be involved in the development of a disease, and an illness may only manifest when several causal factors are present at the same time. For example, in a mouse model, Crohn's disease can be precipitated by a norovirus, but only when both a specific gene variant is present and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.[184] Thus a pathogen's ability to cause a disease may be contingent upon several other causal factors.

Pathogen-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses.[185] About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare costs.[186]

Difficulties in determining if a pathogen causes the disease[edit | edit source]

Determining whether a pathogen plays a causal role in a given chronic disease is difficult for the following reasons:

  • The time between contracting the infectious pathogen and the appearance of the first chronic disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.
  • An infection may be asymptomatic when first contracted and go unnoticed.
  • An infectious pathogen may not cause its associated disease in every person.
  • Only specific strains of a pathogen may be linked to a disease; other strains may not be so harmful (for example, multiple sclerosis is strongly associated with certain genetic variants of Epstein-Barr virus).[187]
  • A given disease may be precipitated by more than one pathogen.
  • A pathogen may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other causal factors.
  • A pathogenic microbe may only precipitate the disease when it breaches into and infects specific organs. When it infects different organs, a different disease (or no disease) may be precipitated.
  • Some pathogens are not easily detectable, and it is difficult to link hard-to-detect pathogens to a disease.
  • For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate pathogenic microbes into humans to see if they do cause the disease.
  • A pathogen may cause a disease indirectly, such as via autoimmune processes induced by the pathogen.

In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, investigation into the link between pathogenic microbes and chronic disease is ongoing, and there is a large volume of published studies which demonstrate these associations.

Notable studies[edit | edit source]

Articles and blogs[edit | edit source]

Learn more[edit | edit source]

See also[edit | edit source]

Temp refs[edit | edit source]

[22] [19] [21] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [63] [64] [65] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] [88] [89] [90] [91] [93] [94] [95] [96] [97] [100] [101] [102] [103] [104] [105] [106] [107] [108] [109] [110] [111] [112] [113] [114] [115] [116] [117] [119] [120] [121] [122] [123] [124] [125] [126] [127] [24]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. Threats, Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial; Knobler, Stacey L.; O'Connor, Siobhán; Lemon, Stanley M.; Najafi, Marjan (2004). Preface. National Academies Press (US).
  2. O'Connor, Siobhán M.; Taylor, Christopher E.; Hughes, James M. (July 2006). "Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 12 (7): 1051–1057. doi:10.3201/eid1207.060037. ISSN 1080-6040. PMC 3291059. PMID 16836820.
  3. Freeman, Esther E.; Weiss, Helen A.; Glynn, Judith R.; Cross, Pamela L.; Whitworth, James A.; Hayes, Richard J. (January 2, 2006). "Herpes simplex virus 2 infection increases HIV acquisition in men and women: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies". AIDS (London, England). 20 (1): 73–83. doi:10.1097/01.aids.0000198081.09337.a7. ISSN 0269-9370. PMID 16327322.
  4. 4.0 4.1 Centers for Disease Control (August 12, 2020). "Non-Polio Enterovirus | About EV-D68 | Enterovirus D68". Centers for Disease Control. Retrieved August 18, 2020.
  5. Dominy, Stephen S.; Lynch, Casey; Ermini, Florian; Benedyk, Malgorzata; Marczyk, Agata; Konradi, Andrei; Nguyen, Mai; Haditsch, Ursula; Raha, Debasish; Griffin, Christina; Holsinger, Leslie J. (January 1, 2019). "Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer's disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors". Science Advances. 5 (1). doi:10.1126/sciadv.aau3333. ISSN 2375-2548. Retrieved August 18, 2020.
  6. Shima, Kensuke; Kuhlenbäumer, Gregor; Rupp, Jan (November 2010). "Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?". Medical Microbiology and Immunology. 199 (4): 283–289. doi:10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1. ISSN 1432-1831. PMID 20445987.
  7. Kountouras, Jannis; Boziki, Marina; Gavalas, Emmanuel; Zavos, Christos; Grigoriadis, Nikolaos; Deretzi, Georgia; Tzilves, Dimitrios; Katsinelos, Panagiotis; Tsolaki, Magda (May 2009). "Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer's disease". Journal of Neurology. 256 (5): 758–767. doi:10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z. ISSN 0340-5354.
  8. {{Cite journal|last=Kusbeci|first=Ozge Yilmaz|last2=Miman|first2=Ozlem|last3=Yaman|first3=Mehmet|last4=Aktepe|first4=Orhan Cem|last5=Yazar|first5=Suleyman|date=Jan 2011|title=Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/%7Cjournal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875
  9. Itzhaki, Ruth F.; Wozniak, Matthew A. (April 28, 2008). Miklossy, Judith; Martins, Ralph N. (eds.). "Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within". Journal of Alzheimer's Disease. 13 (4): 393–405. doi:10.3233/JAD-2008-13405.
  10. Pisa, Diana; Alonso, Ruth; Rábano, Alberto; Rodal, Izaskun; Carrasco, Luis (December 2015). "Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer's Disease". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 15015. doi:10.1038/srep15015. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4606562. PMID 26468932.
  11. Readhead, Ben; Haure-Mirande, Jean-Vianney; Funk, Cory C.; Richards, Matthew A.; Shannon, Paul; Haroutunian, Vahram; Sano, Mary; Liang, Winnie S.; Beckmann, Noam D. (July 2018). "Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer's Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus". Neuron. 99 (1): 64–82.e7. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023. ISSN 0896-6273. PMC 6551233. PMID 29937276.
  12. Corcia, P.; Giraud, P.; Guennoc, A.-M.; de Toffol, B.; Autret, A. (January 2003). "[Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]". Revue Neurologique. 159 (1): 80–82. ISSN 0035-3787. PMID 12618659.
  13. McCormick, A. L.; Brown, R. H.; Cudkowicz, M. E.; Al-Chalabi, A.; Garson, J. A. (January 22, 2008). "Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate". Neurology. 70 (4): 278–283. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4. ISSN 1526-632X. PMID 18209202.
  14. 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Fallon, B. A.; Nields, J. A. (November 1994). "Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 151 (11): 1571–1583. doi:10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571. ISSN 0002-953X. PMID 7943444.
  15. Sokol, M. S. (2000). "Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases". Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. 10 (2): 133–145. doi:10.1089/cap.2000.10.133. ISSN 1044-5463. PMID 10933123.
  16. 16.0 16.1 Johnson, Eugene H.; Windsor, Jeffrey J.; Clark, C. Graham (July 2004). "Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 17 (3): 553–570, table of contents. doi:10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004. ISSN 0893-8512. PMID 15258093.
  17. 17.0 17.1 17.2 Phillips, Anna C.; Carroll, Douglas; Khan, Naeem; Moss, Paul (January 2008). "Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults". Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 22 (1): 52–55. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012. ISSN 1090-2139. PMID 17703915.
  18. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683
  19. 19.0 19.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970"
  20. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709
  21. 21.0 21.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399
  22. 22.0 22.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440
  23. 23.0 23.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532096
  24. 24.0 24.1 24.2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10541419
  25. 25.0 25.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2056624
  26. 26.0 26.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719
  27. 27.0 27.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176
  28. Prager, Manfred; Türel, Zeynep; Speidl, Walter S.; Zorn, Gerlinde; Kaun, Christoph; Niessner, Alexander; Heinze, Georg; Huk, Igor; Maurer, Gerald (December 2002). "Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals". Stroke. 33 (12): 2756–2761. doi:10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77. ISSN 1524-4628. PMID 12468766.
  29. 29.0 29.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408
  30. 30.0 30.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438
  31. 31.0 31.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12959425
  32. 32.0 32.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12173102
  33. 33.0 33.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18357776
  34. Toussirot, Eric; Roudier, Jean (2008-10). "Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases". Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology. 22 (5): 883–896. doi:10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007. ISSN 1532-1770. PMID 19028369. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  35. Barzilai, O.; Sherer, Y.; Ram, M.; Izhaky, D.; Anaya, J. M.; Shoenfeld, Y. (2007-06). "Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1108: 567–577. doi:10.1196/annals.1422.059. ISSN 0077-8923. PMID 17894021. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  36. Lehmann, Hartwig W.; von Landenberg, Philipp; Modrow, Susanne (2003-06). "Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease". Autoimmunity Reviews. 2 (4): 218–223. doi:10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4. ISSN 1568-9972. PMID 12848949. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  37. Stratton, Richard; Slapak, Gabrielle; Mahungu, Tabitha; Kinloch-de Loes, Sabine (2009-02). "Autoimmunity and HIV". Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases. 22 (1): 49–56. doi:10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006. ISSN 1473-6527. PMID 19532080. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  38. Shapira, Yinon; Agmon-Levin, Nancy; Shoenfeld, Yehuda (2010-04). "Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D". Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology. 38 (2–3): 169–177. doi:10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1. ISSN 1559-0267. PMID 19543859. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  39. Thomas, Dimitrios; Karachaliou, Feneli; Kallergi, Konstantina; Vlachopapadopoulou, Elpis; Antonaki, Georgia; Chatzimarkou, Fotini; Fotinou, Aspasia; Kaldrymides, Philippos; Michalacos, Stefanos (2008-04). "Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease". Endocrine. 33 (2): 171–175. doi:10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8. ISSN 1355-008X. PMID 18473192. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  40. Larizza, Daniela; Calcaterra, Valeria; Martinetti, Miryam; Negrini, Riccardo; De Silvestri, Annalisa; Cisternino, Mariangela; Iannone, A. M.; Solcia, Enrico (2006-01). "Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 91 (1): 176–179. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-1272. ISSN 0021-972X. PMID 16263823. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  41. 41.0 41.1 41.2 Bode, Liv; Ludwig, Hans (2003-07). "Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 16 (3): 534–545. doi:10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003. ISSN 0893-8512. PMID 12857781. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  42. Dickerson, Faith B.; Boronow, John J.; Stallings, Cassie; Origoni, Andrea E.; Cole, Sara; Krivogorsky, Bogdana; Yolken, Robert H. (March 15, 2004). "Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder". Biological Psychiatry. 55 (6): 588–593. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008. ISSN 0006-3223. PMID 15013827.
  43. Pisani, P.; Parkin, D. M.; Muñoz, N.; Ferlay, J. (1997-06). "Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology. 6 (6): 387–400. ISSN 1055-9965. PMID 9184771. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  44. de Martel, Catherine; Franceschi, Silvia (June 2009). "Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses". Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology. 70 (3): 183–194. doi:10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021. ISSN 1879-0461. PMID 18805702.
  45. Barzon, L.; Trevisan, M.; Masi, G.; Pacenti, M.; Sinigaglia, A.; Macchi, V.; Porzionato, A.; De Caro, R.; Favia, G. (January 31, 2008). "Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors". Oncogene. 27 (6): 857–864. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1210699. ISSN 1476-5594. PMID 17684484.
  46. Abramowitz, Laurent; Jacquard, Anne-Carole; Jaroud, Fatiha; Haesebaert, Julie; Siproudhis, Laurent; Pradat, Pierre; Aynaud, Olivier; Leocmach, Yann; Soubeyrand, Benoît (July 15, 2011). "Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study". International Journal of Cancer. 129 (2): 433–439. doi:10.1002/ijc.25671. ISSN 1097-0215. PMID 20839262.
  47. Botelho, Monica Catarina; Machado, Jose Carlos; da Costa, Jose Manuel Correia (March 2010). "Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?". Virulence. 1 (2): 84–87. doi:10.4161/viru.1.2.10487. ISSN 2150-5608. PMID 21178421.
  48. Dziurzynski, Kristine; Wei, Jun; Qiao, Wei; Hatiboglu, Mustafa Aziz; Kong, Ling-Yuan; Wu, Adam; Wang, Yongtao; Cahill, Daniel; Levine, Nicholas (July 15, 2011). "Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype". Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research. 17 (14): 4642–4649. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414. ISSN 1557-3265. PMC 3139801. PMID 21490182.
  49. Barbanti-Brodano, Giuseppe; Sabbioni, Silvia; Martini, Fernanda; Negrini, Massimo; Corallini, Alfredo; Tognon, Mauro (2006). "BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors". Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 577: 319–341. doi:10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23. ISSN 0065-2598. PMID 16626046.
  50. Buehring, Gertrude C.; Shen, HuaMin; Schwartz, Daniel A.; Lawson, James S. (2017). "Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development". PloS One. 12 (6): e0179367. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0179367. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 5480893. PMID 28640828.
  51. Lawson, James S.; Günzburg, Walter H.; Whitaker, Noel J. (2006-06). "Viruses and human breast cancer". Future Microbiology. 1 (1): 33–51. doi:10.2217/17460913.1.1.33. ISSN 1746-0921. PMID 17661684. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  52. Chia, John; Chia, Andrew; El-Habbal, Rabiha (August 2011). "Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 64 (8): 722–724. doi:10.1136/jcp.2010.082271. ISSN 1472-4146. PMID 21278394.
  53. Bosch, F. X.; Lorincz, A.; Muñoz, N.; Meijer, C. J. L. M.; Shah, K. V. (2002-04). "The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 55 (4): 244–265. doi:10.1136/jcp.55.4.244. ISSN 0021-9746. PMC 1769629. PMID 11919208. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  54. Castellarin, Mauro; Warren, René L.; Freeman, J. Douglas; Dreolini, Lisa; Krzywinski, Martin; Strauss, Jaclyn; Barnes, Rebecca; Watson, Peter; Allen-Vercoe, Emma (2012-02). "Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma". Genome Research. 22 (2): 299–306. doi:10.1101/gr.126516.111. ISSN 1549-5469. PMC 3266037. PMID 22009989. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  55. Burnett-Hartman, Andrea N.; Newcomb, Polly A.; Potter, John D. (November 2008). "Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology. 17 (11): 2970–2979. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571. ISSN 1055-9965. PMC 2676114. PMID 18990738.
  56. H Salim, Omer E.; Hamid, Hytham K. S.; Mekki, Salwa O.; Suleiman, Suleiman H.; Ibrahim, Shakir Z. (August 13, 2010). "Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship". World Journal of Surgical Oncology. 8: 68. doi:10.1186/1477-7819-8-68. ISSN 1477-7819. PMC 2928231. PMID 20704754.
  57. Coelho, Tatiana R.; Almeida, Luis; Lazo, Pedro A. (February 18, 2010). "JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?". Virology Journal. 7: 42. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-7-42. ISSN 1743-422X. PMC 2830963. PMID 20167111.
  58. Samaras, Vassilis; Rafailidis, Petros I.; Mourtzoukou, Eleni G.; Peppas, George; Falagas, Matthew E. (June 3, 2010). "Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review". Journal of Infection in Developing Countries. 4 (5): 267–281. doi:10.3855/jidc.819. ISSN 1972-2680. PMID 20539059.
  59. Hjalgrim, H.; Engels, E. A. (December 2008). "Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence". Journal of Internal Medicine. 264 (6): 537–548. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x. ISSN 1365-2796. PMID 19017178.
  60. Mazzaro, C.; Tirelli, U.; Pozzato, G. (2005-04). "Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later". Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver. 37 (4): 219–226. doi:10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003. ISSN 1590-8658. PMID 15788203. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  61. Carbone, Antonino; Gloghini, Annunziata; Serraino, Diego; Spina, Michele (2009-01). "HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma". Current opinion in HIV and AIDS. 4 (1): 3–10. doi:10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b. ISSN 1746-6318. PMID 19339934. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  62. Michielsen, Peter P.; Francque, Sven M.; van Dongen, Jurgen L. (May 20, 2005). "Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma". World Journal of Surgical Oncology. 3: 27. doi:10.1186/1477-7819-3-27. ISSN 1477-7819. PMC 1166580. PMID 15907199.
  63. 63.0 63.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038
  64. 64.0 64.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20501758
  65. 65.0 65.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20699096
  66. Rivera, Zeyana; Strianese, Oriana; Bertino, Pietro; Yang, Haining; Pass, Harvey; Carbone, Michele (2008-07). "The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma". Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine. 14 (4): 316–321. doi:10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220. ISSN 1531-6971. PMID 18520265. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  67. Butel, Janet S.; Vilchez, Regis A.; Jorgensen, Jeffrey L.; Kozinetz, Claudia A. (2003). "Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma". Leukemia & Lymphoma. 44 (Suppl 3): S33–39. doi:10.1080/10428190310001623784. ISSN 1042-8194. PMID 15202523.
  68. 68.0 68.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337
  69. 69.0 69.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19840258
  70. 70.0 70.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21206097
  71. 71.0 71.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530
  72. 72.0 72.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006
  73. 73.0 73.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12873884
  74. Wang, Jennifer; Aldabagh, Bishr; Yu, Justin; Arron, Sarah Tuttleton (2014-04). "Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 70 (4): 621–629. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857. ISSN 1097-6787. PMC 3959664. PMID 24629358. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  75. Ishaq, Sauid; Nunn, Lois (2015). "Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review". Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench. 8 (Suppl 1): S6–S14. ISSN 2008-2258. PMC 4495426. PMID 26171139.
  76. Vivaldi, Agnese; Pacini, Furio; Martini, Fernanda; Iaccheri, Laura; Pezzetti, Furio; Elisei, Rossella; Pinchera, Aldo; Faviana, Pinuccia; Basolo, Fulvio (2003-02). "Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 88 (2): 892–899. doi:10.1210/jc.2002-020436. ISSN 0021-972X. PMID 12574230. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  77. 77.0 77.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17872383
  78. 78.0 78.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19828908
  79. 79.0 79.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23155374
  80. 80.0 80.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7650209
  81. 81.0 81.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369
  82. 82.0 82.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18277075
  83. 83.0 83.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11911112
  84. 84.0 84.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10476765
  85. 85.0 85.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18357775
  86. 86.0 86.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592
  87. 87.0 87.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18287127
  88. 88.0 88.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359
  89. 89.0 89.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031
  90. 90.0 90.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20857526
  91. 91.0 91.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602997
  92. http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/29384/title/Equations-that-Spell-Disaster
  93. 93.0 93.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10645920
  94. 94.0 94.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17552106
  95. 95.0 95.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15018628
  96. 96.0 96.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18073775
  97. 97.0 97.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19389580
  98. 98.0 98.1 Schaller, James L.; Burkland, Glenn A.; Langhoff, P. J. (September 13, 2007). "Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?". MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine. 9 (3): 54. ISSN 1531-0132. PMC 2100128. PMID 18092060.
  99. Natelson, Benjamin H.; Ye, Ning; Moul, Douglas E.; Jenkins, Frank J.; Oren, Dan A.; Tapp, Walter N.; Cheng, Yung-Chi (January 1994). "High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness". Journal of Medical Virology. 42 (1): 42–46. doi:10.1002/jmv.1890420109.
  100. 100.0 100.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21292721
  101. 101.0 101.1 101.2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19266182
  102. 102.0 102.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11905853
  103. 103.0 103.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12898016
  104. 104.0 104.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18951821
  105. 105.0 105.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17360338
  106. 106.0 106.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15236922
  107. 107.0 107.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921
  108. 108.0 108.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688
  109. 109.0 109.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236
  110. 110.0 110.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19340895
  111. 111.0 111.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19780970
  112. 112.0 112.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716
  113. 113.0 113.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12015932
  114. 114.0 114.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17535102
  115. 115.0 115.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441
  116. 116.0 116.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839
  117. 117.0 117.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328
  118. Visser, L. H.; van der Meché, F. G.; Meulstee, J.; Rothbarth, P. P.; Jacobs, B. C.; Schmitz, P. I.; van Doorn, P. A. (September 1996). "Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group". Neurology. 47 (3): 668–673. doi:10.1212/wnl.47.3.668. ISSN 0028-3878. PMID 8797462.
  119. 119.0 119.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10815319
  120. 120.0 120.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338
  121. 121.0 121.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597
  122. 122.0 122.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074
  123. 123.0 123.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163
  124. 124.0 124.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17359324
  125. 125.0 125.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17913930
  126. 126.0 126.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19821794
  127. 127.0 127.1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19393117
  128. Albert, Hanne B.; Sorensen, Joan S.; Christensen, Berit Schiott; Manniche, Claus (2013-04). "Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy". European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society. 22 (4): 697–707. doi:10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y. ISSN 1432-0932. PMC 3631045. PMID 23404353. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  129. Albert, Hanne B.; Lambert, Peter; Rollason, Jess; Sorensen, Joan Solgaard; Worthington, Tony; Pedersen, Mogens Bach; Nørgaard, Hanne Schack; Vernallis, Ann; Busch, Frederik (2013-04). "Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?". European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society. 22 (4): 690–696. doi:10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z. ISSN 1432-0932. PMC 3631023. PMID 23397187. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  130. 130.0 130.1 130.2 Aslanidis, Spyros; Pyrpasopoulou, Athina; Kontotasios, Kostas; Doumas, Stella; Zamboulis, Chryssanthos (July 2008). "Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?". European Journal of Internal Medicine. 19 (5): 314–318. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013. ISSN 1879-0828. PMID 18549931.
  131. James, Judith A.; Harley, John B.; Scofield, R. Hal (September 2006). "Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus". Current Opinion in Rheumatology. 18 (5): 462–467. doi:10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94. ISSN 1040-8711. PMID 16896283.
  132. Rider, J. R.; Ollier, W. E.; Lock, R. J.; Brookes, S. T.; Pamphilon, D. H. (July 1997). "Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus". Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 15 (4): 405–409. ISSN 0392-856X. PMID 9272302.
  133. Miller, Daniel M.; Espinosa-Heidmann, Diego G.; Legra, Jessica; Dubovy, Sander R.; Sũner, Ivan J.; Sedmak, Daniel D.; Dix, Richard D.; Cousins, Scott W. (September 2004). "The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration". American Journal of Ophthalmology. 138 (3): 323–328. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018. ISSN 0002-9394. PMID 15364212.
  134. Cousins, Scott W.; Espinosa-Heidmann, Diego G.; Miller, Daniel M.; Pereira-Simon, Simone; Hernandez, Eleut P.; Chien, Hsin; Meier-Jewett, Courtney; Dix, Richard D. (2012). "Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization". PLoS pathogens. 8 (4): e1002671. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671. ISSN 1553-7374. PMC 3343109. PMID 22570607.
  135. Lin, Ching-Yih; Su, Shih-Bin; Chang, Chih-Ching; Lee, Tsung-Ming; Shieh, Jiunn-Min; Guo, How-Ran (December 2009). "The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults". Southern Medical Journal. 102 (12): 1203–1208. doi:10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9. ISSN 1541-8243. PMID 20016424.
  136. Nabipour, Iraj; Vahdat, Katayon; Jafari, Seyed Mojtaba; Pazoki, Raha; Sanjdideh, Zahra (December 1, 2006). "The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study". Cardiovascular Diabetology. 5: 25. doi:10.1186/1475-2840-5-25. ISSN 1475-2840. PMC 1697801. PMID 17140429.
  137. Haahr, Sven; Höllsberg, Per (September 2006). "Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection". Reviews in Medical Virology. 16 (5): 297–310. doi:10.1002/rmv.503. ISSN 1052-9276. PMID 16927411.
  138. Mechelli, Rosella; Manzari, Caterina; Policano, Claudia; Annese, Anita; Picardi, Ernesto; Umeton, Renato; Fornasiero, Arianna; D'Erchia, Anna Maria; Buscarinu, Maria Chiara (March 31, 2015). "Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis". Neurology. 84 (13): 1362–1368. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420. ISSN 1526-632X. PMC 4388746. PMID 25740864.
  139. Hassani, Asma; Corboy, John R.; Al-Salam, Suhail; Khan, Gulfaraz (2018). "Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells". PloS One. 13 (2): e0192109. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0192109. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 5796799. PMID 29394264.
  140. Voumvourakis, Konstantine I.; Kitsos, Dimitrios K.; Tsiodras, Sotirios; Petrikkos, George; Stamboulis, Eleftherios (November 2010). "Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 85 (11): 1023–1030. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0350. ISSN 1942-5546. PMC 2966366. PMID 20926836.
  141. Engdahl, Elin; Gustafsson, Rasmus; Huang, Jesse; Biström, Martin; Lima Bomfim, Izaura; Stridh, Pernilla; Khademi, Mohsen; Brenner, Nicole; Butt, Julia (2019). "Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis". Frontiers in Immunology. 10: 2715. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715. ISSN 1664-3224. PMC 6988796. PMID 32038605.
  142. Sotelo, Julio; Martínez-Palomo, Adolfo; Ordoñez, Graciela; Pineda, Benjamin (2008-03). "Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis". Annals of Neurology. 63 (3): 303–311. doi:10.1002/ana.21316. ISSN 1531-8249. PMID 18306233. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  143. Munger, Kassandra L.; Peeling, Rosanna W.; Hernán, Miguel A.; Chasan-Taber, Lisa; Olek, Michael J.; Hankinson, Susan E.; Hunter, David; Ascherio, Alberto (2003-03). "Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis". Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.). 14 (2): 141–147. doi:10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E. ISSN 1044-3983. PMID 12606878. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  144. Arcari, Christine M.; Gaydos, Charlotte A.; Nieto, F. Javier; Krauss, Margot; Nelson, Kenrad E. (April 15, 2005). "Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement". Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 40 (8): 1123–1130. doi:10.1086/428730. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 15791511.
  145. Gabrylewicz, Bogna; Mazurek, Urszula; Ochała, Andrzej; Sliupkas-Dyrda, Elektra; Garbocz, Piotr; Pyrlik, Andrzej; Mróz, Iwona; Wilczok, Tadeusz; Tendera, Michał (2003-10). "Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?". Kardiologia Polska. 59 (10): 283–292. ISSN 0022-9032. PMID 14618212. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  146. 146.0 146.1 Andréoletti, Laurent; Ventéo, Lydie; Douche-Aourik, Fatima; Canas, Frédéric; Lorin de la Grandmaison, Geoffroy; Jacques, Jérôme; Moret, Hélène; Jovenin, Nicolas; Mosnier, Jean-François (December 4, 2007). "Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 50 (23): 2207–2214. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080. ISSN 1558-3597. PMID 18061067.
  147. Gaaloul, Imed; Riabi, Samira; Harrath, Rafik; Evans, Mark; Salem, Nidhal H.; Mlayeh, Souheil; Huber, Sally; Aouni, Mahjoub (September 11, 2012). "Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem". BMC infectious diseases. 12: 212. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-12-212. ISSN 1471-2334. PMC 3462138. PMID 22966951.
  148. Guggenheim, J. A.; Williams, C.; UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium (2016-04). "Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants". Eye (London, England). 30 (4): 608–614. doi:10.1038/eye.2016.7. ISSN 1476-5454. PMC 4834038. PMID 26846593. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  149. Atkinson, R. L.; Dhurandhar, N. V.; Allison, D. B.; Bowen, R. L.; Israel, B. A.; Albu, J. B.; Augustus, A. S. (2005-03). "Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids". International Journal of Obesity (2005). 29 (3): 281–286. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830. ISSN 0307-0565. PMID 15611785. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  150. Atkinson, Richard L.; Lee, Insil; Shin, Hye-Jung; He, Jia (2010-04). "Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children". International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity. 5 (2): 157–160. doi:10.3109/17477160903111789. ISSN 1747-7174. PMID 19593728. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  151. McAllister, Emily J.; Dhurandhar, Nikhil V.; Keith, Scott W.; Aronne, Louis J.; Barger, Jamie; Baskin, Monica; Benca, Ruth M.; Biggio, Joseph; Boggiano, Mary M. (November 2009). "Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 49 (10): 868–913. doi:10.1080/10408390903372599. ISSN 1549-7852. PMC 2932668. PMID 19960394.
  152. Ponterio, Eleonora; Gnessi, Lucio (July 8, 2015). "Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview". Viruses. 7 (7): 3719–3740. doi:10.3390/v7072787. ISSN 1999-4915. PMC 4517116. PMID 26184280.
  153. Vasilakopoulou, A.; le Roux, C. W. (2007-09). "Could a virus contribute to weight gain?". International Journal of Obesity (2005). 31 (9): 1350–1356. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623. ISSN 0307-0565. PMID 17420782. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  154. Atkinson, Richard L. (2007-10). "Viruses as an etiology of obesity". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 82 (10): 1192–1198. doi:10.4065/82.10.1192. ISSN 0025-6196. PMID 17908526. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  155. Ley, Ruth E.; Turnbaugh, Peter J.; Klein, Samuel; Gordon, Jeffrey I. (December 21, 2006). "Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity". Nature. 444 (7122): 1022–1023. doi:10.1038/4441022a. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 17183309.
  156. Dourmashkin, Robert R.; McCall, Sherman A.; Dourmashkin, Neil; Hannah, Matthew J. (2018). "Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease". F1000Research. 7: 302. doi:10.12688/f1000research.13626.2. ISSN 2046-1402. PMC 5968367. PMID 29899977.
  157. Takahashi, M.; Yamada, T. (1999-06). "Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection". Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases. 52 (3): 89–98. ISSN 1344-6304. PMID 10507986. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  158. Miman, Ozlem; Kusbeci, Ozge Yilmaz; Aktepe, Orhan Cem; Cetinkaya, Zafer (May 21, 2010). "The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease". Neuroscience Letters. 475 (3): 129–131. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057. ISSN 1872-7972. PMID 20350582.
  159. Qayoom, S.; Ahmad, Q. M. (2003-03). "Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori". Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology. 69 (2): 133–134. ISSN 0973-3922. PMID 17642857. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  160. Johansson, Linda; Sherina, Natalia; Kharlamova, Nastya; Potempa, Barbara; Larsson, Barbro; Israelsson, Lena; Potempa, Jan; Rantapää-Dahlqvist, Solbritt; Lundberg, Karin (September 7, 2016). "Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis". Arthritis Research & Therapy. 18: 201. doi:10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4. ISSN 1478-6362. PMC 5015325. PMID 27605245.
  161. Rashid, Taha; Ebringer, Alan (2007-07). "Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence". Clinical Rheumatology. 26 (7): 1036–1043. doi:10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z. ISSN 0770-3198. PMID 17206398. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  162. Hsieh, Yu-Fan; Liu, Han-Wen; Hsu, Tsai-Ching; Wei, James C.-C.; Shih, Chien-Ming; Krause, Peter J.; Tsay, Gregory J. (November 2007). "Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis". Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI. 14 (11): 1437–1441. doi:10.1128/CVI.00151-07. ISSN 1556-6811. PMC 2168181. PMID 17881508.
  163. Drake, Wonder Puryear; Newman, Lee S. (2006-09). "Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis". Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine. 12 (5): 359–363. doi:10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94. ISSN 1070-5287. PMID 16926652. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  164. Herndon, Betty L.; Vlach, Victoria; Dew, Michelle; Willsie, Sandra K. (2004-03). "Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis". Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research. 52 (2): 137–143. doi:10.1136/jim-52-02-23. ISSN 1081-5589. PMID 15068230. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  165. Dickerson, Faith; Jones-Brando, Lorraine; Ford, Glen; Genovese, Giulio; Stallings, Cassie; Origoni, Andrea; O'Dushlaine, Colm; Katsafanas, Emily; Sweeney, Kevin (September 11, 2019). "Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 45 (5): 1112–1119. doi:10.1093/schbul/sby164. ISSN 1745-1701. PMC 6737467. PMID 30462333.
  166. Krause, Daniela; Matz, Judith; Weidinger, Elif; Wagner, Jenny; Wildenauer, Agnes; Obermeier, Michael; Riedel, Michael; Müller, Norbert (2010-08). "The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia". The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry. 11 (5): 739–743. doi:10.3109/15622971003653246. ISSN 1814-1412. PMID 20602604. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  167. Lashnits, Erin; Maggi, Ricardo; Jarskog, Fredrik; Bradley, Julie; Breitschwerdt, Edward; Frohlich, Flavio (March 15, 2021). "Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study". Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.). doi:10.1089/vbz.2020.2729. ISSN 1557-7759. PMID 33728987.
  168. Rantakallio, P.; Jones, P.; Moring, J.; Von Wendt, L. (August 1997). "Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up". International Journal of Epidemiology. 26 (4): 837–843. doi:10.1093/ije/26.4.837. ISSN 0300-5771. PMID 9279617.
  169. Brown, Alan S.; Begg, Melissa D.; Gravenstein, Stefan; Schaefer, Catherine A.; Wyatt, Richard J.; Bresnahan, Michaeline; Babulas, Vicki P.; Susser, Ezra S. (August 2004). "Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia". Archives of General Psychiatry. 61 (8): 774–780. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774. ISSN 0003-990X. PMID 15289276.
  170. Triantafyllopoulou, Antigoni; Tapinos, Nikos; Moutsopoulos, Haralampos M. (September 2004). "Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome". Arthritis and Rheumatism. 50 (9): 2897–2902. doi:10.1002/art.20463. ISSN 0004-3591. PMID 15457458.
  171. Andriushkova, Natalia G.; Turchyna, Nataliia S.; Poniatowski, Vadym A.; Dolinchuk, Ludmyla V.; Melnyk, Valentyna V.; Shyrobokov, Volodymyr P.; Zakharchenko, Nataliia V. (2017). "The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke". Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960). 70 (2): 187–191. ISSN 0043-5147. PMID 28511156.
  172. Cook, P. J.; Honeybourne, D.; Lip, G. Y.; Beevers, D. G.; Wise, R.; Davies, P. (February 1998). "Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project". Stroke. 29 (2): 404–410. doi:10.1161/01.str.29.2.404. ISSN 0039-2499. PMID 9472881.
  173. Ponzetto, Antonio; Marchet, Alberto; Pellicano, Rinaldo; Lovera, Nicoletta; Chianale, Gigliola; Nobili, Marcello; Rizzetto, Mario; Cerrato, Paolo (May 2002). "Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study". Hepato-Gastroenterology. 49 (45): 631–634. ISSN 0172-6390. PMID 12063957.
  174. Sheu, Jau-Jiuan; Chiou, Hung-Yi; Kang, Jiunn-Horng; Chen, Yi-Hua; Lin, Herng-Ching (February 2010). "Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study". Stroke. 41 (2): 244–249. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735. ISSN 1524-4628. PMID 20035070.
  175. Leonardi, Salvatore; Pavone, Piero; Rotolo, Novella; La Rosa, Mario (September 2005). "Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?". The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 24 (9): 843–845. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56. ISSN 0891-3668. PMID 16148858.
  176. Kang, Jiunn-Horng; Ho, Jau-Der; Chen, Yi-Hua; Lin, Herng-Ching (November 2009). "Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study". Stroke. 40 (11): 3443–3448. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017. ISSN 1524-4628. PMID 19815828.
  177. Cleary, John D.; Pearson, Margaret; Oliver, Jake; Chapman, Stanley W. (September 2008). "Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke". Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association. 17 (5): 312–319. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015. ISSN 1532-8511. PMID 18755412.
  178. Mell, Loren K.; Davis, Robert L.; Owens, David (July 2005). "Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder". Pediatrics. 116 (1): 56–60. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2058. ISSN 1098-4275. PMID 15995031.
  179. Müller, Norbert; Riedel, Michael; Blendinger, Christa; Oberle, Karin; Jacobs, Enno; Abele-Horn, Marianne (December 15, 2004). "Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome". Psychiatry Research. 129 (2): 119–125. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009. ISSN 0165-1781. PMID 15590039.
  180. Krause, Daniela; Matz, Judith; Weidinger, Elif; Wagner, Jenny; Wildenauer, Agnes; Obermeier, Michael; Riedel, Michael; Müller, Norbert (June 2010). "Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 260 (4): 359–363. doi:10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3. ISSN 1433-8491. PMID 19890596.
  181. 181.0 181.1 Ewald, Paul W. (2002). Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease. Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-385-72184-4.
  182. Cochran, G. M.; Ewald, P. W.; Cochran, K. D. (2000). "Infectious causation of disease: an evolutionary perspective". Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. 43 (3): 406–448. doi:10.1353/pbm.2000.0016. ISSN 0031-5982. PMID 10893730.
  183. Patron, Jonas; Serra-Cayuela, Arnau; Han, Beomsoo; Li, Carin; Wishart, David Scott (2019). "Assessing the performance of genome-wide association studies for predicting disease risk". PloS One. 14 (12): e0220215. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0220215. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6894795. PMID 31805043.
  184. Cadwell, Ken; Patel, Khushbu K.; Maloney, Nicole S.; Liu, Ta-Chiang; Ng, Aylwin C. Y.; Storer, Chad E.; Head, Richard D.; Xavier, Ramnik; Stappenbeck, Thaddeus S. (June 25, 2010). "Virus-plus-susceptibility gene interaction determines Crohn's disease gene Atg16L1 phenotypes in intestine". Cell. 141 (7): 1135–1145. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009. ISSN 1097-4172. PMC 2908380. PMID 20602997.
  185. Kockaya, Guvenc; Wertheimer, Albert (October 26, 2010). "What are the top most costly diseases for USA? The alignment of burden of illness with prevention and screening expenditures". Health. 2 (10): 1174–1178. doi:10.4236/health.2010.210172.
  186. "Almanac of Chronic Disease (www.fightchronicdisease.org)" (PDF). 2009.
  187. Mechelli, Rosella; Manzari, Caterina; Policano, Claudia; Annese, Anita; Picardi, Ernesto; Umeton, Renato; Fornasiero, Arianna; D'Erchia, Anna Maria; Buscarinu, Maria Chiara (March 31, 2015). "Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis". Neurology. 84 (13): 1362–1368. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420. ISSN 1526-632X. PMC 4388746. PMID 25740864.