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List of chronic diseases linked to infectious pathogens
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==Diseases associated with infectious pathogens== In the following list of diseases linked to infectious pathogens, there is a good possibility that the pathogens might cause the disease, but further research is need to work out whether these pathogens do play a causal role. This list covers some of the most common human diseases linked to infectious pathogens, but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list of pathogen-associated diseases. {| class="wikitable alternance" cellpadding="0" | style="text-align: center;" width="24%" | '''Disease''' | style="text-align: center;" | '''Pathogens Linked to the Disease''' |- |'''[[acute flaccid myelitis|Acute flaccid myelitis]]''' | Acute flaccid myelitis, a serious but rare neurological disease, is believed to be associated with the [[enterovirus#EV-D68|EV-D68 enterovirus]]<ref name="ev68-CDC2020">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/non-polio-enterovirus/about/ev-d68.html | title = Non-Polio Enterovirus {{!}} About EV-D68 {{!}} Enterovirus D68 | last = Centers for Disease Control|first = | authorlink = Centers for Disease Control | date = 2020-08-12 | website = [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|language=en-us|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|access-date=2020-08-18}}</ref> EV-D68 is a non-polio [[enterovirus]].<ref name="ev68-CDC2020" /> |- | '''Alzheimer's disease''' | Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="Benedyk2019">{{cite journal | last = Dominy | first = Stephen S. | last2 = Lynch | first2 = Casey | last3 = Ermini | first3 = Florian | last4 = Benedyk | first4 = Malgorzata | last5 = Marczyk | first5 = Agata | last6 = Konradi | first6 = Andrei | last7 = Nguyen | first7 = Mai | last8 = Haditsch | first8 = Ursula | last9 = Raha | first9 = Debasish | last10 = Griffin | first10 = Christina | last11 = Holsinger | first11 = Leslie J. | title=Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors | journal=Science Advances | volume=5 | issue=1 | date = 2019-01-01 | issn=2375-2548 | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3333 | url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/1/eaau3333 | access-date =2020-08-18 | page=}}</ref> [[chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="Shima">{{Cite journal | last = Shima | first = Kensuke | authorlink = | last2 = Kuhlenbäumer | first2 = Gregor | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rupp | first3 = Jan | authorlink3 = | date = 2010 | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445987/|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=199|issue=4|pages=283–289|doi=10.1007/s00430-010-0162-1|issn=1432-1831|pmc=|pmid=20445987|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and [[helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="Kountouras">{{Cite journal | last = Kountouras | first = Jannis | authorlink = | last2 = Boziki | first2 = Marina | authorlink2 = | last3 = Gavalas | first3 = Emmanuel | authorlink3 = | last4 = Zavos | first4 = Christos | authorlink4 = | last5 = Grigoriadis | first5 = Nikolaos | authorlink5 = | last6 = Deretzi | first6 = Georgia | authorlink6 = | last7 = Tzilves | first7 = Dimitrios | last8 = Katsinelos | first8 = Panagiotis | last9 = Tsolaki | first9 = Magda | date = May 2009 | title = Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer’s disease|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|journal=Journal of Neurology|language=en|volume=256|issue=5 | pages = 758–767|doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5011-z|issn=0340-5354|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and with the protozoan parasite [[toxoplasma gondii]].<ref name="Kusbeci">{{Cite journal | last = Kusbeci|first = Ozge Yilmaz | last2 = Miman | first2 = Ozlem | last3 = Yaman | first3 = Mehmet | last4 = Aktepe | first4 = Orhan Cem | last5 = Yazar | first5 = Suleyman | date = Jan 2011 | title = Could Toxoplasma gondii have any role in Alzheimer disease?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20921875/|journal=Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181f73bc2|issn=1546-4156|pmid=20921875}}</ref><br /> [[Herpes simplex virus]] 1 is associated with Alzheimer's disease in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the herpes virus to enter the brain).<ref name="Itzhaki">{{Cite journal | last = Itzhaki|first = Ruth F. | last2 = Wozniak | first2 = Matthew A. | date = 2008-04-28|editor-last = Miklossy|editor-first = Judith|editor2-last = Martins|editor2-first = Ralph N. | title=Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease: The Enemy Within | url = https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=13|issue=4 | pages = 393–405|doi=10.3233/JAD-2008-13405}}</ref><br /><br />Fungal infections have been found in the brains of Alzheimer patients.<ref name="Pisa">{{Cite journal | last = Pisa | first = Diana | authorlink = | last2 = Alonso | first2 = Ruth | authorlink2 = | last3 = Rábano | first3 = Alberto | authorlink3 = | last4 = Rodal | first4 = Izaskun | authorlink4 = | last5 = Carrasco | first5 = Luis | authorlink5 = | date = Dec 2015 | title = Different Brain Regions are Infected with Fungi in Alzheimer’s Disease|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/srep15015|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=15015|doi=10.1038/srep15015|issn=2045-2322|pmc=4606562|pmid=26468932|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref>[[Human_herpesvirus_6|HHV-6A]] and [[Human_herpesvirus_7|HHV-7]] have been found more frequently in the brains of Alzheimer's patients than those of healthy controls.<ref name="Readhead">{{Cite journal | last = Readhead | first = Ben | authorlink = | last2 = Haure-Mirande | first2 = Jean-Vianney | authorlink2 = | last3 = Funk | first3 = Cory C. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Richards | first4 = Matthew A. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Shannon | first5 = Paul | authorlink5 = | last6 = Haroutunian | first6 = Vahram | authorlink6 = | last7 = Sano | first7 = Mary | last8 = Liang | first8 = Winnie S. | last9 = Beckmann | first9 = Noam D. | date = Jul 2018 | title = Multiscale Analysis of Independent Alzheimer’s Cohorts Finds Disruption of Molecular, Genetic, and Clinical Networks by Human Herpesvirus|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|journal=Neuron|volume=99|issue=1 | pages = 64–82.e7|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2018.05.023|issn=0896-6273|pmc=6551233|pmid=29937276|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> |- | '''[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]''' | Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor neuron disease, is associated with [[echovirus]], an [[enterovirus]] infection of the central nervous system,<ref name="pmid12618659">{{Cite journal | last = Corcia | first = P. | last2 = Giraud | first2 = P. | last3 = Guennoc | first3 = A.-M. | last4 = de Toffol | first4 = B. | last5 = Autret | first5 = A. | date = Jan 2003 | title = [Acute motor axonal neuropathy, enterovirus and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: can there be a link?]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12618659/|journal=Revue Neurologique|volume=159|issue=1 | pages = 80–82|issn=0035-3787|pmid=12618659}}</ref> and with [[retrovirus]]<ref name="pmid18209202">{{Cite journal | last = McCormick|first = A.L. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.H. | last3 = Cudkowicz | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Al-Chalabi | first4 = A. | last5 = Garson | first5 = J.A. | date = 2008-01-22 | title = Quantification of reverse transcriptase in ALS and elimination of a novel retroviral candidate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18209202/|journal=Neurology|volume=70|issue=4|pages=278–283|doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000297552.13219.b4|issn=1526-632X|pmid=18209202}}</ref> activity (it is not known whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus, or from an exogenous retrovirus). |- | '''[[Anorexia_and_eating_disorders#Anorexia|Anorexia nervosa]]''' | Infection with borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria is associated with anorexia nervosa. In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection with [[streptococcus]]<ref name="pmid10933123">{{Cite journal | last = Sokol|first = M.S. | date = 2000 | title = Infection-triggered anorexia nervosa in children: clinical description of four cases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10933123/|journal=Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–145|doi=10.1089/cap.2000.10.133|issn=1044-5463|pmid=10933123}}</ref> species bacteria. [[Anorexia (appetite loss)|Anorexia]] (the symptom of appetite loss, which is distinct from anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093" /> |- | '''[[Anxiety|Anxiety disorder]]''' | Anxiety is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid17703915">{{Cite journal | last = Phillips | first = Anna C. | authorlink = | last2 = Carroll | first2 = Douglas | authorlink2 = | last3 = Khan | first3 = Naeem | authorlink3 = | last4 = Moss | first4 = Paul | authorlink4 = | date = Jan 2008 | title = Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703915/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 52–55|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012|issn=1090-2139|pmc=|pmid=17703915|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24472683">{{Cite journal | last = Rector | first = Jerrald L. | last2 = Dowd | first2 = Jennifer B. | last3 = Loerbroks | first3 = Adrian | last4 = Burns | first4 = Victoria E. | last5 = Moss | first5 = Paul A. | last6 = Jarczok | first6 = Marc N. | last7 = Stalder | first7 = Tobias | last8 = Hoffman | first8 = Kristina | last9 = Fischer | first9 = Joachim E. | date = May 2014 | title = Consistent associations between measures of psychological stress and CMV antibody levels in a large occupational sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24472683/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=38|pages=133–141|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.01.012|issn=1090-2139|pmid=24472683}}</ref> and the bacterium [[helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid18422970">{{Cite journal | last = Addolorato|first = G. | last2 = Mirijello | first2 = A. | last3 = D'Angelo | first3 = C. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Ferrulli | first5 = A. | last6 = Abenavoli | first6 = L. | last7 = Vonghia | first7 = L. | last8 = Cardone | first8 = S. | last9 = Leso | first9 = V. | date = Jul 2008 | title = State and trait anxiety and depression in patients affected by gastrointestinal diseases: psychometric evaluation of 1641 patients referred to an internal medicine outpatient setting | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18422970/|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=62|issue=7|pages=1063–1069|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01763.x|issn=1742-1241|pmid=18422970}}</ref> Anxiety is associated with [[toxoplasma gondii]],<ref name="pmid25124709">{{Cite journal | last = Markovitz|first = Adam A. | last2 = Simanek | first2 = Amanda M. | last3 = Yolken | first3 = Robert H. | last4 = Galea | first4 = Sandro | last5 = Koenen | first5 = Karestan C. | last6 = Chen | first6 = Shu | last7 = Aiello | first7 = Allison E. | date = Jan 2015 | title = Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25124709/|journal=Brain, Behavior, and Immunity|volume=43|pages=192–197|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001|issn=1090-2139|pmid=25124709}}</ref> or at least associated with higher levels of IgG antibodies to this parasite.<ref name="pmid25185399">{{Cite journal | last = Gale | first = Shawn D. | last2 = Brown | first2 = Bruce L. | last3 = Berrett | first3 = Andrew | last4 = Erickson | first4 = Lance D. | last5 = Hedges | first5 = Dawson W. | date = Aug 2014 | title = Association between latent toxoplasmosis and major depression, generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in human adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185399/|journal=Folia Parasitologica|volume=61|issue=4|pages=285–292|issn=0015-5683|pmid=25185399}}</ref> Anxiety as a personality trait is associated with higher antibody titers to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid8500440">{{Cite journal | last = Esterling|first = B.A. | last2 = Antoni | first2 = M.H. | last3 = Kumar | first3 = M. | last4 = Schneiderman | first4 = N. | date = Mar 1993 | title = Defensiveness, trait anxiety, and Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen antibody titers in healthy college students|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8500440/|journal=Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association|volume=12|issue=2|pages=132–139|doi=10.1037//0278-6133.12.2.132|issn=0278-6133|pmid=8500440}}</ref> |- | '''[[Asthma]]''' | Asthma is associated with [[rhinovirus]], human respiratory syncytial virus,<ref name="pmid19532096">{{cite journal | last = Gern | first = James E | title=Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma | journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2009 | issn=1528-4050 | pmid=19532096 | pmc=2760477 | doi=10.1097/aci.0b013e32831f8f1b | pages=73–78}}</ref> and the bacterium chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10541419">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = David L. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae, asthma, and COPD: what is the evidence? | journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology : official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology | volume=83 | issue=4 | date = 1999 | issn=1081-1206 | pmid=10541419 | doi=10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62666-x | pages=271–292}}</ref> Chlamydia pneumoniae is particularly associated with adult-onset asthma.<ref name="pmid2056624">{{cite journal | last = Hahn | first = DL | last2 = Dodge | first2 = RW | last3 = Golubjatnikov | first3 = R | title=Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma. | journal=JAMA | volume=266 | issue=2 | date =Jul 10, 1991 | issn=0098-7484 | pmid=2056624 | pages=225–30}}</ref> |- | '''Atherosclerosis''' | Atherosclerosis is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid25834719">{{Cite journal | last = Heybar | first = Habib | last2 = Alavi | first2 = Seyed Mohammad | last3 = Farashahi Nejad | first3 = Mehdi | last4 = Latifi | first4 = Mahmood | date = Mar 2015 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and atherosclerosis in candidate of coronary artery bypass graft|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25834719/|journal=Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology|volume=8|issue=3| pages = e15476|doi=10.5812/jjm.15476|issn=2008-3645|pmc=4377172|pmid=25834719}}</ref> and the bacteria helicobacter pylori<ref name="pmid25725176">{{Cite journal | last = Karbasi-Afshar | first = Reza | last2 = Khedmat | first2 = Hossein | last3 = Izadi | first3 = Morteza | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori Infection and atherosclerosis: a systematic review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25725176/|journal=Acta Medica Iranica|volume=53|issue=2 | pages = 78–88|issn=1735-9694|pmid=25725176}}</ref> and [[chlamydia pneumoniae]].<ref name="pmid12468766">{{Cite journal | last = Prager | first = Manfred | last2 = Türel | first2 = Zeynep | last3 = Speidl | first3 = Walter S. | last4 = Zorn | first4 = Gerlinde | last5 = Kaun | first5 = Christoph | last6 = Niessner | first6 = Alexander | last7 = Heinze | first7 = Georg | last8 = Huk | first8 = Igor | last9 = Maurer | first9 = Gerald | date = Dec 2002 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae in carotid artery atherosclerosis: a comparison of its presence in atherosclerotic plaque, healthy vessels, and circulating leukocytes from the same individuals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12468766/|journal=Stroke|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2756–2761|doi=10.1161/01.str.0000039322.66575.77|issn=1524-4628|pmid=12468766}}</ref> |- | '''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder''' | Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are associated with the bacteria [[borrelia burgdorferi]] and [[streptococcus]], and with HIV and [[Enterovirus#enterovirus_71|enterovirus 71]].<br /> Febrile seizures due to [[human herpesvirus 6]] or [[influenza#influenza_A|subtype A]] are a risk factor for ADHD. Viral infections during pregnancy, at birth, and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD.<ref name="pmid18245408">{{cite journal | last = Millichap | first = J.G. | title = Etiologic Classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal=Pediatrics | publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) | volume=121 | issue=2 | date = Jan 28, 2008 | issn=0031-4005 | pmid=18245408 | doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1332 | pages = e358–e365 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245408}}</ref> |- | '''Autism''' | Autism is linked to congenital infection with [[rubella virus]] or [[cytomegalovirus]].<ref name="pmid5172438">{{Cite journal | last = Chess | first = S. | date = Jan 1971 | title = Autism in children with congenital rubella|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5172438/|journal=Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–47|doi=10.1007/BF01537741|issn=0021-9185|pmid=5172438}}</ref><ref name="pmid12959425">{{cite journal | last = Yamashita | first = Yushiro | last2 = Fujimoto | first2 = Chizu | last3 = Nakajima | first3 = Eisuke | last4 = Isagai | first4 = Takeo | last5 = Matsuishi | first5 = Toyojiro | title= Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder |journal=Journal of autism and developmental disorders | volume=33 | issue=4 | date = 2003 | issn=0162-3257 | pmid=12959425 | doi=10.1023/a:1025023131029 | pages=455–459}}</ref> [[Clostridia]] bacterial species are associated with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of autistic children).<ref name="pmid12173102">{{cite journal | last = Finegold | first = Sydney M. | last2 = Molitoris | first2 = Denise | last3 = Song | first3 = Yuli | last4 = Liu | first4 = Chengxu | last5 = Vaisanen | first5 = Marja‐Liisa | last6 = Bolte | first6 = Ellen | last7 = McTeague | first7 = Maureen | last8 = Sandler | first8 = Richard | last9 = Wexler | first9 = Hannah | last10 = Marlowe | first10 = Elizabeth M. | last11 = Collins | first11 = Matthew D. | last12 = Lawson | first12 = Paul A. | last13 = Summanen | first13 = Paula | last14 = Baysallar | first14 = Mehmet | last15 = Tomzynski | first15 = Thomas J. | last16 = Read | first16 =Erik | last17 = Johnson | first17 = Eric | last18 = Rolfe | first18 = Rial | last19 = Nasir | first19 = Palwasha | last20 = Shah | first20 = Haroun | last21 = Haake | first21 = David A. | last22 = Manning | first22 = Patricia | last23 = Kaul | first23 = Ajay | title=Gastrointestinal Microflora Studies in Late‐Onset Autism | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=35 | issue=s1 | date =Sep 1, 2002 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=12173102 | doi=10.1086/341914 | pages=S6–S16}}</ref> |- | '''[[Autoimmune disease]]s''' | Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[Coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357776">{{cite book | last = Rose | first = N.R. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Autoimmunity in Coxsackievirus Infection | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357776 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_14 | pages=293–314}}</ref> [[Autoimmune disease]]s are also associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19028369">{{Cite journal | last = Toussirot | first = Eric | last2 = Roudier | first2 = Jean | date = Oct 2008 | title = Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028369/|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology|volume=22|issue=5 | pages = 883–896|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2008.09.007|issn=1532-1770|pmid=19028369}}</ref> cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid17894021">{{Cite journal | last = Barzilai|first = O. | last2 = Sherer | first2 = Y. | last3 = Ram | first3 = M. | last4 = Izhaky | first4 = D. | last5 = Anaya | first5 = J.M. | last6 = Shoenfeld | first6 = Y. | date = Jun 2007 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894021/|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1108 | pages = 567–577|doi=10.1196/annals.1422.059|issn=0077-8923|pmid=17894021}}</ref> [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid12848949">{{Cite journal | last = Lehmann | first = Hartwig W. | last2 = von Landenberg | first2 = Philipp | last3 = Modrow | first3 = Susanne | date = Jun 2003 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and autoimmune disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12848949/|journal=Autoimmunity Reviews|volume=2|issue=4|pages=218–223|doi=10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00014-4|issn=1568-9972|pmid=12848949}}</ref> and HIV,<ref name="pmid19532080">{{Cite journal | last = Stratton | first = Richard | last2 = Slapak | first2 = Gabrielle | last3 = Mahungu | first3 = Tabitha | last4 = Kinloch-de Loes | first4 = Sabine | date = Feb 2009 | title = Autoimmunity and HIV|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532080/|journal=Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases|volume=22|issue=1 | pages = 49–56|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006|issn=1473-6527|pmid=19532080}}</ref> and the bacterium mycobacterium tuberculosis.<ref name="pmid19543859">{{Cite journal | last = Shapira | first = Yinon | last2 = Agmon-Levin | first2 = Nancy | last3 = Shoenfeld | first3 = Yehuda | date = Apr 2010 | title = Mycobacterium tuberculosis, autoimmunity, and vitamin D|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19543859/|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1|issn=1559-0267|pmid=19543859}}</ref> Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid18473192">{{Cite journal | last = Thomas | first = Dimitrios | last2 = Karachaliou | first2 = Feneli | last3 = Kallergi | first3 = Konstantina | last4 = Vlachopapadopoulou | first4 = Elpis | last5 = Antonaki | first5 = Georgia | last6 = Chatzimarkou | first6 = Fotini | last7 = Fotinou | first7 = Aspasia | last8 = Kaldrymides | first8 = Philippos | last9 = Michalacos | first9 = Stefanos | date = Apr 2008 | title = Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18473192/|journal=Endocrine|volume=33|issue=2|pages=171–175|doi=10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8|issn=1355-008X|pmid=18473192}}</ref> and [[helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid16263823">{{Cite journal | last = Larizza | first = Daniela | last2 = Calcaterra | first2 = Valeria | last3 = Martinetti | first3 = Miryam | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Riccardo | last5 = De Silvestri | first5 = Annalisa | last6 = Cisternino | first6 = Mariangela | last7 = Iannone | first7 = A.M. | last8 = Solcia | first8 = Enrico | date = Jan 2006 | title = Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune thyroid disease in young patients: the disadvantage of carrying the human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*0301 allele|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16263823/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=91|issue=1|pages=176–179|doi=10.1210/jc.2005-1272|issn=0021-972X|pmid=16263823}}</ref> |- | '''Bipolar disorder''' | Bipolar disorder is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781">{{Cite journal | last = Bode | first = Liv | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Hans | date = Jul 2003 | title = Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12857781/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=16|issue=3 | pages = 534–545|doi=10.1128/cmr.16.3.534-545.2003|issn=0893-8512|pmid=12857781}}</ref> and with Borrelia species bacteria.<ref name="pmid7943444">{{Cite journal | last = Fallon | first = B.A. | authorlink = | last2 = Nields | first2 = J.A. | authorlink2 = | date = Nov 1994 | title = Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7943444/|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=151|issue=11|pages=1571–1583|doi=10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571|issn=0002-953X|pmc=|pmid=7943444|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The level of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is associated with [[herpes simplex virus]] 1.<ref name="pmid15013827">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith B. | last2 = Boronow | first2 = John J. | last3 = Stallings | first3 = Cassie | last4 = Origoni | first4 = Andrea E. | last5 = Cole | first5 = Sara | last6 = Krivogorsky | first6 = Bogdana | last7 = Yolken | first7 = Robert H. | date = 2004-03-15 | title = Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15013827/|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=6 | pages = 588–593|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.008|issn=0006-3223|pmid=15013827}}</ref> |- | '''[[Cancer]]''' | Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to infectious pathogen causes.<ref name="pmid9184771">{{Cite journal | last = Pisani|first = P. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = D.M. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Ferlay | first4 = J. | date = Jun 1997 | title = Cancer and infection: estimates of the attributable fraction in 1990|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9184771/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=6|issue=6 | pages = 387–400|issn=1055-9965|pmid=9184771}}</ref><ref name="pmid18805702">{{Cite journal | last = de Martel|first = Catherine | last2 = Franceschi | first2 = Silvia | date = Jun 2009 | title = Infections and cancer: established associations and new hypotheses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18805702/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=70|issue=3|pages=183–194|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.07.021|issn=1879-0461|pmid=18805702}}</ref> In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if the pathogens currently associated with cancers (such as those listed below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (For the sake of completeness, some pathogens proven to cause cancers are included in the list, in addition to pathogens that have been linked to cancers, but are not yet proven to cause the cancer.) '''Adrenal tumor''' is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid17684484">{{Cite journal | last = Barzon | first = L. | last2 = Trevisan | first2 = M. | last3 = Masi | first3 = G. | last4 = Pacenti | first4 = M. | last5 = Sinigaglia | first5 = A. | last6 = Macchi | first6 = V. | last7 = Porzionato | first7 = A. | last8 = De Caro | first8 = R. | last9 = Favia | first9 = G. | date = 2008-01-31 | title = Detection of polyomaviruses and herpesviruses in human adrenal tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17684484/|journal=Oncogene|volume=27|issue=6 | pages = 857–864|doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1210699|issn=1476-5594|pmid=17684484}}</ref><br />'''Anal cancer''' is associated with human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid20839262">{{Cite journal | last = Abramowitz|first = Laurent | last2 = Jacquard | first2 = Anne-Carole | last3 = Jaroud | first3 = Fatiha | last4 = Haesebaert | first4 = Julie | last5 = Siproudhis | first5 = Laurent | last6 = Pradat | first6 = Pierre | last7 = Aynaud | first7 = Olivier | last8 = Leocmach | first8 = Yann | last9 = Soubeyrand | first9 = Benoît | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in anal cancer in France: the EDiTH V study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20839262/|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=129|issue=2 | pages = 433–439|doi=10.1002/ijc.25671|issn=1097-0215|pmid=20839262}}</ref> <br />'''Bladder cancer''' can be caused by schistosoma helminths.<ref name="pmid21178421">{{Cite journal | last = Botelho|first = Monica Catarina | last2 = Machado | first2 = Jose Carlos | last3 = da Costa | first3 = Jose Manuel Correia | date = Mar 2010 | title = Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer: what lies beneath?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21178421/|journal=Virulence|volume=1|issue=2 | pages = 84–87|doi=10.4161/viru.1.2.10487|issn=2150-5608|pmid=21178421}}</ref><br />'''Brain tumor'''. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]],<ref name="pmid21490182">{{Cite journal | last = Dziurzynski|first = Kristine | last2 = Wei | first2 = Jun | last3 = Qiao | first3 = Wei | last4 = Hatiboglu | first4 = Mustafa Aziz | last5 = Kong | first5 = Ling-Yuan | last6 = Wu | first6 = Adam | last7 = Wang | first7 = Yongtao | last8 = Cahill | first8 = Daniel | last9 = Levine | first9 = Nicholas | date = 2011-07-15 | title = Glioma-associated cytomegalovirus mediates subversion of the monocyte lineage to a tumor propagating phenotype|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21490182/|journal=Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research|volume=17|issue=14 | pages = 4642–4649|doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-0414|issn=1557-3265|pmc=3139801|pmid=21490182}}</ref> [[BK virus]], [[JC virus]], and [[simian virus 40]].<ref name="pmid16626046">{{Cite journal | last = Barbanti-Brodano|first = Giuseppe | last2 = Sabbioni | first2 = Silvia | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Negrini | first4 = Massimo | last5 = Corallini | first5 = Alfredo | last6 = Tognon | first6 = Mauro | date = 2006 | title=BK virus, JC virus and Simian Virus 40 infection in humans, and association with human tumors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626046/|journal=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=577 | pages = 319–341|doi=10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23|issn=0065-2598|pmid=16626046}}</ref><br />'''Breast cancer''' is associated with bovine leukemia virus,<ref name="pmid28640828">{{Cite journal | last = Buehring|first = Gertrude C. | last2 = Shen | first2 = HuaMin | last3 = Schwartz | first3 = Daniel A. | last4 = Lawson | first4 = James S. | date = 2017 | title=Bovine leukemia virus linked to breast cancer in Australian women and identified before breast cancer development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28640828/|journal=PloS One|volume=12|issue=6| pages = e0179367|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179367|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5480893|pmid=28640828}}</ref> mouse mammary tumor virus, [[Epstein-Barr virus]], and human papillomaviruses (HPV).<ref name="pmid17661684">{{Cite journal | last = Lawson | first = James S. | last2 = Günzburg | first2 = Walter H. | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Noel J. | date = Jun 2006 | title = Viruses and human breast cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661684/|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=1|issue=1 | pages = 33–51|doi=10.2217/17460913.1.1.33|issn=1746-0921|pmid=17661684}}</ref><br />'''Carcinoid tumors''' are associated with [[enterovirus]] infections.<ref name="pmid21278394">{{Cite journal | last = Chia | first = John | authorlink = John Chia | last2 = Chia | first2 = Andrew | authorlink2 = Andrew Chia | last3 = El-Habbal | first3 = Rabiha | authorlink3 = | date = Aug 2011 | title = Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21278394/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=64|issue=8 | pages = 722–724|doi=10.1136/jcp.2010.082271|issn=1472-4146|pmc=|pmid=21278394|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref><br />'''Cervical cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<ref name="pmid11919208">{{Cite journal | last = Bosch|first = F. X. | last2 = Lorincz | first2 = A. | last3 = Muñoz | first3 = N. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = C. J. L.M. | last5 = Shah | first5 = K.V. | date = Apr 2002 | title = The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11919208/|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=55|issue=4|pages=244–265|doi=10.1136/jcp.55.4.244|issn=0021-9746|pmc=1769629|pmid=11919208}}</ref><br />'''Colorectal cancer''' is associated with the bacteria [[helicobacter pylori]], [[streptococcus bovis]] and [[fusobacterium nucleatum]],<ref name="pmid22009989">{{Cite journal | last = Castellarin | first = Mauro | last2 = Warren | first2 = René L. | last3 = Freeman | first3 = J. Douglas | last4 = Dreolini | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Krzywinski | first5 = Martin | last6 = Strauss | first6 = Jaclyn | last7 = Barnes | first7 = Rebecca | last8 = Watson | first8 = Peter | last9 = Allen-Vercoe | first9 = Emma | date = Feb 2012 | title = Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22009989/|journal=Genome Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=299–306|doi=10.1101/gr.126516.111|issn=1549-5469|pmc=3266037|pmid=22009989}}</ref> with HPV,<ref name="pmid18990738">{{Cite journal | last = Burnett-Hartman | first = Andrea N. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = Polly A. | last3 = Potter | first3 = John D. | date = Nov 2008 | title = Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: a review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18990738/|journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, Cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology|volume=17|issue=11|pages=2970–2979|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571|issn=1055-9965|pmc=2676114|pmid=18990738}}</ref> and with the helminth [[schistosoma japonicum]].<ref name="pmid20704754">{{Cite journal | last = H Salim|first = Omer E. | last2 = Hamid | first2 = Hytham K.S. | last3 = Mekki | first3 = Salwa O. | last4 = Suleiman | first4 = Suleiman H. | last5 = Ibrahim | first5 = Shakir Z. | date = 2010-08-13 | title = Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20704754/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=8 | pages = 68|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-8-68|issn=1477-7819|pmc=2928231|pmid=20704754}}</ref> JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.<ref name="pmid20167111">{{Cite journal | last = Coelho|first = Tatiana R. | last2 = Almeida | first2 = Luis | last3 = Lazo | first3 = Pedro A. | date = 2010-02-18 | title = JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20167111/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=7 | pages = 42|doi=10.1186/1743-422X-7-42|issn=1743-422X|pmc=2830963|pmid=20167111}}</ref><br />'''Gallbladder cancer''' is associated with the bacterium salmonella typhi.<ref name="pmid20539059">{{Cite journal | last = Samaras | first = Vassilis | last2 = Rafailidis | first2 = Petros I. | last3 = Mourtzoukou | first3 = Eleni G. | last4 = Peppas | first4 = George | last5 = Falagas | first5 = Matthew E. | date = 2010-06-03 | title = Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20539059/|journal=Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=4|issue=5|pages=267–281|doi=10.3855/jidc.819|issn=1972-2680|pmid=20539059}}</ref><br />'''[[Hodgkin's lymphoma]]''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid19017178">{{Cite journal | last = Hjalgrim|first = H. | last2 = Engels | first2 = E.A. | date = Dec 2008 | title = Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19017178/|journal=Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=264|issue=6 | pages = 537–548|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x|issn=1365-2796|pmid=19017178}}</ref> [[hepatitis C virus]],<ref name="pmid15788203">{{Cite journal | last = Mazzaro|first = C. | last2 = Tirelli | first2 = U. | last3 = Pozzato | first3 = G. | date = Apr 2005 | title = Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15788203/|journal=Digestive and Liver Disease: Official Journal of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology and the Italian Association for the Study of the Liver|volume=37|issue=4|pages=219–226|doi=10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003|issn=1590-8658|pmid=15788203}}</ref> and HIV.<ref name="pmid19339934">{{Cite journal | last = Carbone | first = Antonino | last2 = Gloghini | first2 = Annunziata | last3 = Serraino | first3 = Diego | last4 = Spina | first4 = Michele | date = Jan 2009 | title = HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339934/|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|volume=4|issue=1 | pages = 3–10|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b|issn=1746-6318|pmid=19339934}}</ref><br />'''Kaposi's Sarcoma''' can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.<br />'''Liver cancer'''. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by [[hepatitis B virus]], [[hepatitis C virus]],<ref name="pmid15907199">{{Cite journal | last = Michielsen | first = Peter P. | last2 = Francque | first2 = Sven M. | last3 = van Dongen | first3 = Jurgen L. | date = 2005-05-20 | title = Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15907199/|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|pages=27|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-27|issn=1477-7819|pmc=1166580|pmid=15907199}}</ref> and by the helminth schistosoma japonicum.<ref name="pmid7510038">{{Cite journal | last = Ishii|first = A. | last2 = Matsuoka | first2 = H. | last3 = Aji | first3 = T. | last4 = Ohta | first4 = N. | last5 = Arimoto | first5 = S. | last6 = Wataya | first6 = Y. | last7 = Hayatsu | first7 = H. | date = 1994-03-01 | title = Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7510038/|journal=Mutation Research|volume=305|issue=2|pages=273–281|doi=10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-x|issn=0027-5107|pmid=7510038}}</ref><br />'''Lung cancer''' is associated with the bacterium clamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid20501758">{{cite journal | last = Chaturvedi | first = Anil K. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Agreda | first3 = Patricia | last4 = Holden | first4 = Jeffrey P. | last5 = Chatterjee | first5 = Nilanjan | last6 = Goedert | first6 = James J. | last7 = Caporaso | first7 = Neil E. | last8 = Engels | first8 = Eric A. | title=Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer | journal=Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology | volume=19 | issue=6 | date = May 25, 2010 | issn=1055-9965 | pmid=20501758 | doi=10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1261 | pages=1498–1505}}</ref> with HPV, and with Merkel cell [[polyomavirus]].<ref name="pmid20699096">{{cite journal | last = Joh | first = Joongho | last2 = Jenson | first2 = A. Bennett | last3 = Moore | first3 = Grace D. | last4 = Rezazedeh | first4 = Arash | last5 = Slone | first5 = Stephen P. | last6 = Ghim | first6 = Shin-je | last7 = Kloecker | first7 = Goetz H. | title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer | journal=Experimental and molecular pathology | volume=89 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=0014-4800 | pmid=20699096 | doi=10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001 | pages=222–226}}</ref><br />'''Leukemia'''. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.<br />'''Mesothelioma''' is associated with simian virus 40,<ref name="pmid18520265">{{Cite journal | last = Rivera | first = Zeyana | last2 = Strianese | first2 = Oriana | last3 = Bertino | first3 = Pietro | last4 = Yang | first4 = Haining | last5 = Pass | first5 = Harvey | last6 = Carbone | first6 = Michele | date = Jul 2008 | title = The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18520265/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=14|issue=4 | pages = 316–321|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220|issn=1531-6971|pmid=18520265}}</ref> especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure. '''Multiple myeloma''' is associated with hepatitis B virus<ref>{{Cite journal|title=High prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in multiple myeloma|date=2012-02|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21823833/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=53|issue=2|pages=270–274|last=Huang|first=Beihui|last2=Li|first2=Juan|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhenhai|last4=Zheng|first4=Dong|last5=Liu|first5=Junru|last6=Chen|first6=Mei|doi=10.3109/10428194.2011.610013|pmid=21823833|issn=1029-2403}}</ref> and hepatitis C virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Efficacy of Antiviral Treatment in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Driven Monoclonal Gammopathies Including Myeloma|date=2021|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087522/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=12|pages=797209|last=Rodríguez-García|first=Alba|last2=Linares|first2=María|last3=Morales|first3=María Luz|last4=Allain-Maillet|first4=Sophie|last5=Mennesson|first5=Nicolas|last6=Sanchez|first6=Ricardo|last7=Alonso|first7=Rafael|last8=Leivas|first8=Alejandra|last9=Pérez-Rivilla|first9=Alfredo|last10=Bigot-Corbel|first10=Edith|last11=Hermouet|first11=Sylvie|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2021.797209|pmc=8786723|pmid=35087522|issn=1664-3224}}</ref><br />'''Nasopharyngeal carcinoma''' can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.<br />'''Non-Hodgkin lymphoma''' is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid15202523">{{Cite journal | last = Butel|first = Janet S. | last2 = Vilchez | first2 = Regis A. | last3 = Jorgensen | first3 = Jeffrey L. | last4 = Kozinetz | first4 = Claudia A. | date = 2003 | title=Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15202523/|journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma|volume=44|issue=Suppl 3|pages=S33–39|doi=10.1080/10428190310001623784|issn=1042-8194|pmid=15202523}}</ref><br />'''Oropharyngeal cancer''' can be caused by HPV.<br />'''Ovarian cancer''' is associated with [[mumps virus]].<ref name="pmid445337">{{Cite journal | last = Menczer | first = J. | last2 = Modan | first2 = M. | last3 = Ranon | first3 = L. | last4 = Golan | first4 = A. | date = Apr 1979 | title = Possible role of mumps virus in the etiology of ovarian cancer |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445337/|journal=Cancer|volume=43|issue=4|pages=1375–1379|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(197904)43:43.0.co;2-d|issn=0008-543X|pmid=445337}}</ref><br />'''Pancreatic cancer''' is associated with hepatitis B virus,<ref name="pmid19840258">{{cite journal | last = Iloeje | first = Uchenna H. | last2 = Yang | first2 = Hwai-I | last3 = Jen | first3 = Chin-Lan | last4 = Su | first4 = Jun | last5 = Wang | first5 = Li-Yu | last6 = You | first6 = San-Lin | last7 = Lu | first7 = Sheng-Nan | last8 = Chen | first8 = Chien-Jen | title=Risk of pancreatic cancer in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: data from the REVEAL-HBV cohort study | journal=Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver | volume=30 | issue=3 | date = 2010 | issn=1478-3223 | pmid=19840258 | doi=10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02147.x | pages=423–429}}</ref> and the bacterium helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid21206097">{{cite journal | last = Trikudanathan | first = G | last2 = Philip | first2 = A | last3 = Dasanu | first3 = CA | last4 = Baker | first4 = WL | title=Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and pancreatic cancer. A cumulative meta-analysis. | journal=JOP : Journal of the pancreas | volume=12 | issue=1 | date = Jan 5, 2011 | issn=1590-8577 | pmid=21206097 | pages=26–31}}</ref><br />'''Prostate cancer''' is associated with BK virus,<ref name="pmid26699530">{{Cite journal | last = Tognon | first = Mauro | last2 = Provenzano | first2 = Maurizio | date = 2015-12-23 | title = New insights on the association between the prostate cancer and the small DNA tumour virus, BK polyomavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26699530/|journal=Journal of Translational Medicine|volume=13 | pages = 387|doi=10.1186/s12967-015-0754-z|issn=1479-5876|pmc=4690311|pmid=26699530}}</ref> and HPV.<ref name="pmid30508006">{{Cite journal | last = Medel-Flores | first = Olivia | last2 = Valenzuela-Rodríguez | first2 = Vania Alejandra | last3 = Ocadiz-Delgado | first3 = Rodolfo | last4 = Castro-Muñoz | first4 = Leonardo Josué | last5 = Hernández-Leyva | first5 = Sandra | last6 = Lara-Hernández | first6 = Gabriel | last7 = Silva-Escobedo | first7 = Jesús-Gabriel | last8 = Vidal | first8 = Patricio Gariglio | last9 = Sánchez-Monroy | first9 = Virginia | date = Oct 2018 | title = Association between HPV infection and prostate cancer in a Mexican population | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30508006/|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=41|issue=4 | pages = 781–789|doi=10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2017-0331|issn=1415-4757|pmc=6415601|pmid=30508006}}</ref><br />'''Skin neoplasm''' (skin tumor or cancer) is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid12873884">{{cite journal | last = Masini | first = Cinzia | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = Pawel G. | last3 = Gabrielli | first3 = Fabrizio | last4 = Stark | first4 = Sabine | last5 = Sera | first5 = Francesco | last6 = Ploner | first6 = Miriam | last7 = Melchi | first7 = Carmelo Franco | last8 = Primavera | first8 = Grazia | last9 = Pirchio | first9 = Giulio | last10 = Picconi | first10 = Orietta | last11 = Petasecca | first11 = Pierpaolo | last12 = Cattaruzza | first12 = Maria Sofia | last13 = Pfister | first13 = Herbert J. | last14 = Abeni | first14 = Damiano | title=Evidence for the Association of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Immunocompetent Individuals | journal=Archives of dermatology| volume=139 | issue=7 | date =Jul 1, 2003 | issn=0003-987X | pmid=12873884 | doi=10.1001/archderm.139.7.890 | page=}}</ref><br />'''Squamous cell carcinoma''' is associated with HPV.<ref name="pmid24629358">{{Cite journal | last = Wang|first = Jennifer | last2 = Aldabagh | first2 = Bishr | last3 = Yu | first3 = Justin | last4 = Arron | first4 = Sarah Tuttleton | date = Apr 2014 | title = Role of human papillomavirus in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24629358/|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume=70|issue=4 | pages = 621–629|doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.857|issn=1097-6787|pmc=3959664|pmid=24629358}}</ref><br />'''Stomach cancer''' is associated with the bacterium helicobacter pylori.<ref name="pmid26171139">{{Cite journal | last = Ishaq|first = Sauid | last2 = Nunn | first2 = Lois | date = 2015 | title=Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: a state of the art review | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26171139/|journal=Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S6–S14|issn=2008-2258|pmc=4495426|pmid=26171139}}</ref><br />'''Thyroid cancer''' is associated with simian virus 40.<ref name="pmid12574230">{{Cite journal | last = Vivaldi|first = Agnese | last2 = Pacini | first2 = Furio | last3 = Martini | first3 = Fernanda | last4 = Iaccheri | first4 = Laura | last5 = Pezzetti | first5 = Furio | last6 = Elisei | first6 = Rossella | last7 = Pinchera | first7 = Aldo | last8 = Faviana | first8 = Pinuccia | last9 = Basolo | first9 = Fulvio | date = Feb 2003 | title = Simian virus 40-like sequences from early and late regions in human thyroid tumors of different histotypes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12574230/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=2 | pages = 892–899|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020436|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12574230}}</ref> |- | '''[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]''' | [[ME/CFS]] is associated with [[enterovirus]]es (such as [[coxsackie B]] virus),<ref name="pmid17872383">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = J K S | last2 = Chia | first2 = A Y | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome is associated with chronic enterovirus infection of the stomach | journal=Journal of clinical pathology | volume=61 | issue=1 | date =Sep 14, 2007 | issn=0021-9746 | pmid=17872383 | doi=10.1136/jcp.2007.050054 | pages=43–48}}</ref><ref name="pmid19828908">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = J. | last2 = Chia | first2 = A. | last3 = Voeller | first3 = M. | last4 = Lee | first4 = T. | last5 = Chang | first5 = R. | title=Acute enterovirus infection followed by myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) and viral persistence | journal=Journal of clinical pathology | volume=63 | issue=2 | date = 2010 | issn=0021-9746 | pmid=19828908 | doi=10.1136/jcp.2009.070466 | pages=165–168}}</ref> partial reactivation of [[Epstein-Barr virus]],<ref name="pmid23155374">{{cite journal | last = Lerner | first = A. Martin | last2 = Ariza | first2 = Maria E. | last3 = Williams | first3 = Marshall | last4 = Jason | first4 = Leonard | last5 = Beqaj | first5 = Safedin | last6 = Fitzgerald | first6 = James T. | last7 = Lemeshow | first7 = Stanley | last8 = Glaser | first8 = Ronald | editor-last = Moormann | editor-first = Ann M. | title=Antibody to Epstein-Barr Virus Deoxyuridine Triphosphate Nucleotidohydrolase and Deoxyribonucleotide Polymerase in a Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Subset | journal=PloS one | volume=7 | issue=11 | date =Nov 14, 2012 | issn=1932-6203 | pmid=23155374 | pmc=3498272 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0047891 | page=e47891}}</ref> [[human herpesvirus 6#HHPV-6A|human herpesvirus 6A]],<ref name="pmid7650209">{{Cite journal | last = Di Luca | first = D. | last2 = Zorzenon | first2 = M. | last3 = Mirandola | first3 = P. | last4 = Colle | first4 = R. | last5 = Botta | first5 = G.A. | last6 = Cassai | first6 = E. | date = Jun 1995 | title =Human herpesvirus 6 and human herpesvirus 7 in chronic fatigue syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7650209/|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=33|issue=6|pages=1660–1661|doi=10.1128/JCM.33.6.1660-1661.1995|issn=0095-1137|pmid=7650209}}</ref> [[human herpesvirus 7]],<ref name="pmid17276369">{{cite journal| vauthors=Chapenko S, Krumina A, Kozireva S, Nora Z, Sultanova A, Viksna L | display-authors=etal| title=Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. | journal=J Clin Virol | date = 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= Suppl 1| pages = S47-51 | pmid=17276369 | doi=10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7 | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17276369 }} </ref> and [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18277075">{{cite journal | last = Seishima | first = Mariko | last2 = Mizutani | first2 = Yoko | last3 = Shibuya | first3 = Yoshinao | last4 = Arakawa | first4 = Chikako | title=Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia | journal=Dermatology (Basel, Switzerland) | volume=216 | issue=4 | date = 2008 | issn=1018-8665 | pmid=18277075 | doi=10.1159/000116723 | pages=341–346}}</ref><ref name="pmid11911112">{{cite journal | last = Kerr | first = JR | last2 = Bracewell | first2 = J | last3 = Laing | first3 = I | last4 = Mattey | first4 = DL | last5 = Bernstein | first5 = RM | last6 = Bruce | first6 = IN | last7 = Tyrrell | first7 = DA | title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection. | journal=The Journal of rheumatology | volume=29 | issue=3 | date = 2002 | issn=0315-162X | pmid=11911112 | pages=595–602}}</ref> The intracellular bacterium [[chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid10476765">{{cite journal | last = Chia | first = John K.S. | last2 = Chia | first2 = Laura Y. | title=Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 1999 | issn=1058-4838 | pmid=10476765 | doi=10.1086/520239 | pages=452–453}}</ref> is also linked chronic fatigue syndrome. |- | '''Chronic myocarditis''' | Chronic myocarditis is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid18357775">{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = N.M. | last2 = Kim | first2 = K. -S. | title=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | chapter=Persistent Coxsackievirus Infection: Enterovirus Persistence in Chronic Myocarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy | journal=Current topics in microbiology and immunology | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin, Heidelberg | volume=323 | date = 2008 | isbn=978-3-540-75545-6 | pmid=18357775 | doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75546-3_13 | pages=275–292}}</ref> |- | '''Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease''' | Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, is associated with chlamydia pneumoniae<ref name="pmid9129592">{{Cite journal | last = Von Hertzen | first = L. | last2 = Alakärppä | first2 = H. | last3 = Koskinen | first3 = R. | last4 = Liippo | first4 = K. | last5 = Surcel | first5 = H.M. | last6 = Leinonen | first6 = M. | last7 = Saikku | first7 = P. | date = Apr 1997 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9129592/|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=118|issue=2|pages=155–164|doi=10.1017/s095026889600725x|issn=0950-2688|pmc=2808789|pmid=9129592}}</ref> and Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="pmid18287127">{{cite journal | last = McManus | first = T.E. | last2 = Marley | first2 = A-M. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = N. | last4 = Christie | first4 = S.N. | last5 = Elborn | first5 = J.S. | last6 = O'Neill | first6 = H.J. | last7 = Coyle | first7 = P.V. | last8 = Kidney | first8 = J.C. | title=High levels of Epstein-Barr virus in COPD | journal=The European respiratory journal | volume=31 | issue=6 | date = Mar 5, 2008 | issn=0903-1936 | pmid=18287127 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00107507 | pages=1221–1226}}</ref> |- | '''[[Crohn's disease]]''' | Crohn's disease is linked to a thin layer of infection on the intestinal lining with the fungus [[candida tropicalis]], in tandem with the bacteria [[escherichia coli]] (e-coli) and serratia marcescens.<ref name="pmid27651359">{{Cite journal | last = Hoarau|first = G. | last2 = Mukherjee | first2 = P.K. | last3 = Gower-Rousseau | first3 = C. | last4 = Hager | first4 = C. | last5 = Chandra | first5 = J. | last6 = Retuerto | first6 = M.A. | last7 = Neut | first7 = C. | last8 = Vermeire | first8 = S. | last9 = Clemente | first9 = J. | date = 2016-09-20 | title = Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn's Disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27651359/|journal=mBio|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.1128/mBio.01250-16|issn=2150-7511|pmc=5030358|pmid=27651359}}</ref><br /><br />One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the [[enterovirus]] genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).<ref name="pmid23804031">{{Cite journal | last = Nyström|first = Niklas | last2 = Berg | first2 = Tove | last3 = Lundin | first3 = Elin | last4 = Skog | first4 = Oskar | last5 = Hansson | first5 = Inga | last6 = Frisk | first6 = Gun | last7 = Juko-Pecirep | first7 = Ivana | last8 = Nilsson | first8 = Mats | last9 = Gyllensten | first9 = Ulf | date = 2013-06-27 | title = Human enterovirus species B in ileocecal Crohn's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804031/|journal=Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology|volume=4| pages = e38|doi=10.1038/ctg.2013.7|issn=2155-384X|pmc=3696939|pmid=23804031}}</ref><br /><br />Crohn's disease is associated with mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.<ref name="pmid20857526">{{cite journal | last = Mendoza | first = Juan L | title=High prevalence of viableMycobacterium aviumsubspeciesparatuberculosisin Crohn’s disease | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=16 | issue=36 | date =Sep 28, 2010 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=20857526 | pmc=2945487 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558 | page=4558}}</ref><br /><br />In a mouse model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the [[norovirus]] CR6 strain,<ref name=":0" /> but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when these three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination. |- | '''Coronary heart disease''' | Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid10645920">{{cite journal | last = Roivainen | first = Merja | last2 = Viik-Kajander | first2 = Maarit | last3 = Palosuo | first3 = Timo | last4 = Toivanen | first4 = Petri | last5 = Leinonen | first5 = Maija | last6 = Saikku | first6 = Pekka | last7 = Tenkanen | first7 = Leena | last8 = Manninen | first8 = Vesa | last9 = Hovi | first9 = Tapani | last10 = Mänttäri | first10 = Matti | title=Infections, Inflammation, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease | journal=Circulation | volume=101 | issue=3 | date = Jan 25, 2000 | issn=0009-7322 | pmid=10645920 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.101.3.252 | pages=252–257}}</ref> Coronary heart disease is linked to cytomegalovirus.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Du|first = Yu | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Guangxue | last3 = Liu | first3 = Zhijun | date = 2018-02-06 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and coronary heart disease: a systematic review | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5801777/|journal=Virology Journal|volume=15|doi=10.1186/s12985-018-0937-3|issn=1743-422X|pmc=5801777|pmid=29409508}}</ref> |- | '''Dementia''' | Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, [[West Nile virus]], [[Borna disease virus]], and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria. |- | '''[[Depression]]''' | Depression is associated with [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and [[West Nile virus]],<ref name="pmid17552106">{{cite journal | last = Murray | first = Kristy O. | last2 = Resnick | first2 = Melissa | last3 = Miller | first3 = Vicki | title=Depression after Infection with West Nile Virus1 | journal=Emerging infectious diseases | volume=13 | issue=3 | date = 2007 | issn=1080-6040 | pmid=17552106 | pmc=2725905 | doi=10.3201/eid1303.060602 | pages=479–481}}</ref> and the protozoan parasite [[toxoplasma gondii]].<ref name="pmid15018628">{{cite journal | last = Kar | first = Nilamadhab | last2 = Misra | first2 = Baikunthanath | title=Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report | journal=BMC psychiatry | volume=4 | issue=1 | date =Feb 5, 2004 | issn=1471-244X | pmid=15018628 | pmc=356918 | doi=10.1186/1471-244x-4-1 | page=}}</ref> It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.<ref name="pmid18073775">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | last2 = O'Connor | first2 = Jason C. | last3 = Freund | first3 = Gregory G. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = Rodney W. | last5 = Kelley | first5 = Keith W. | title=From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain | journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience | volume=9 | issue=1 | date = 2008 | issn=1471-003X | pmid=18073775 | pmc=2919277 | doi=10.1038/nrn2297 | pages=46–56}}</ref><ref name="pmid19389580">{{cite journal | last = Dantzer | first = Robert | title=Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression | journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America | volume=29 | issue=2 | date = 2009 | issn=0889-8561 | pmid=19389580 | pmc=2740752 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002 | pages=247–264}}</ref> '''[[depression|Major depressive disorder]]''' is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> as well as [[bartonella]]<ref name="pmid18092060">{{Cite journal | last = Schaller | first = James L. | last2 = Burkland | first2 = Glenn A. | last3 = Langhoff | first3 = P.J. | date = 2007-09-13 | title = Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18092060/|journal=MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine|volume=9|issue=3 | pages = 54|issn=1531-0132|pmc=2100128|pmid=18092060}}</ref> and [[borrelia]]<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria.<br />'''Seasonal affective disorder''' is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.<ref name="Natelson1994a">{{Cite journal | last = Natelson | first = Benjamin H. | authorlink = Benjamin Natelson | last2 = Ye | first2 = Ning | authorlink2 = | last3 = Moul | first3 = Douglas E. | authorlink3 = | last4 = Jenkins | first4 = Frank J. | authorlink4 = | last5 = Oren | first5 = Dan A. | authorlink5 = | last6 = Tapp | first6 = Walter N. | authorlink6 = | last7 = Cheng | first7 = Yung-Chi | date = Jan 1994 | title = High titers of anti-epstein-barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmv.1890420109|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|language=en|volume=42|issue=1 | pages = 42–46|doi=10.1002/jmv.1890420109|pmc=|pmid=|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> |- | '''[[Diabetes#type_1|Diabetes mellitus type 1]]''' | Type 1 diabetes is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,<ref name="pmid21292721">{{cite journal | last = Yeung | first = W.-C.G. | last2 = Rawlinson | first2 = W. D. | last3 = Craig | first3 = M.E. | title=Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies | journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.) | volume=342 | issue=feb03 1 | date =Feb 3, 2011 | issn=0959-8138 | pmid=21292721 | pmc=3033438 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d35 | pages=d35–d35}}</ref><ref name="pmid19266182">{{cite journal | last = Richardson | first = S.J. | last2 = Willcox | first2 = A. | last3 = Bone | first3 = A.J. | last4 = Foulis | first4 = A. K. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = N.G. | title = The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetologia | volume=52 | issue=6 | date = Mar 6, 2009 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=19266182 | doi=10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0 | pages=1143–1151}}</ref> such as [[echovirus]] 4,<ref name="pmid11905853">{{cite journal | last = García | first = Igrid | last2 = Abalos | first2 = Ivonne | last3 = Jofrat | first3 = Raisa | last4 = Molina | first4 = Gisela | last5 = Díaz-díaz | first5 = Oscar | last6 = Dimario | first6 = Umberto | title=Echovirus 4 and type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | journal=Autoimmunity | volume=34 | issue=4 | date = 2001 | issn=0891-6934 | pmid=11905853 | doi=10.3109/08916930109014696 | pages=275–281}}</ref> echovirus 16,<ref name="pmid12898016">{{cite journal | last = Cabrera-Rode | first = E. | last2 = Sarmiento | first2 = L. | last3 = Tiberti | first3 = C. | last4 = Molina | first4 = G. | last5 = Barrios | first5 = J. | last6 = Hernández | first6 = D. | last7 = Díaz-Horta | first7 = O. | last8 = Di Mario | first8 = U. | title=Type 1 diabetes islet associated antibodies in subjects infected by echovirus 16 | journal=Diabetologia | volume=46 | issue=10 | date =Jul 29, 2003 | issn=0012-186X | pmid=12898016 | doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1179-4 | pages=1348–1353}}</ref> and [[coxsackie B4 virus]].<ref name="pmid18951821">{{cite journal | last = Jaïdane | first = H. | last2 = Hober | first2 = D. | title=Role of coxsackievirus B4 in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes | journal=Diabetes & metabolism | volume=34 | issue=6 | date = 2008 | issn=1262-3636 | pmid=18951821 | doi=10.1016/j.diabet.2008.05.008 | pages=537–548}}</ref><ref name="pmid17360338">{{cite journal | last = Dotta | first = F. | last2 = Censini | first2 = S. | last3 = van Halteren | first3 = A.G.S. | last4 = Marselli | first4 = L. | last5 = Masini | first5 = M. | last6 = Dionisi | first6 = S. | last7 = Mosca | first7 = F. | last8 = Boggi | first8 = U. | last9 = Muda | first9 = A.O. | last10 = Prato | first10 = S. D. | last11 = Elliott | first11 = J.F. | last12 = Covacci | first12 = A. | last13 = Rappuoli | first13 = R. | last14 = Roep | first14 = B.O. | last15 = Marchetti | first15 = P. | title=Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=104 | issue=12 | date = Mar 14, 2007 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=17360338 | pmc=1829272 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700442104 | pages=5115–5120}}</ref> [[coxsackie B]] virus can infect and destroy the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms).<ref name="pmid15236922">{{cite journal | last = KAWASHIMA | first = H | last2 = IHARA | first2 = T | last3 = IOI | first3 = H | last4 = OANA | first4 = S | last5 = SATO | first5 = S | last6 = KATO | first6 = N | last7 = TAKAMI | first7 = T | last8 = KASHIWAGI | first8 = Y | last9 = TAKEKUMA | first9 = K | last10 = HOSHIKA | first10 = A | title=Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan | journal=The Journal of infection | volume=49 | issue=2 | date = 2004 | issn=0163-4453 | pmid=15236922 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012 | pages=147–151}}</ref><br /> Coxsackie B1 virus is associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes, whereas Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses is associated with a ''reduced'' risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).<ref name="pmid23974921">{{Cite journal | last = Laitinen | first = Olli H. | last2 = Honkanen | first2 = Hanna | last3 = Pakkanen | first3 = Outi | last4 = Oikarinen | first4 = Sami | last5 = Hankaniemi | first5 = Minna M. | last6 = Huhtala | first6 = Heini | last7 = Ruokoranta | first7 = Tanja | last8 = Lecouturier | first8 = Valérie | last9 = André | first9 = Philippe | date = Feb 2014 | title = Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23974921/|journal=Diabetes|volume=63|issue=2 | pages = 446–455|doi=10.2337/db13-0619|issn=1939-327X|pmid=23974921}}</ref><br /><br />In boys, human [[parechovirus]] infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.<ref name="pmid23852688">{{Cite journal | last = Kolehmainen | first = P. | last2 = Koskiniemi | first2 = M. | last3 = Oikarinen | first3 = S. | last4 = Veijola | first4 = R. | last5 = Simell | first5 = O. | last6 = Ilonen | first6 = J. | last7 = Knip | first7 = M. | last8 = Hyöty | first8 = H. | last9 = Tauriainen | first9 = S. | date = Sep 2013 | title = Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23852688/|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=85|issue=9|pages=1619–1623|doi=10.1002/jmv.23659|issn=1096-9071|pmid=23852688}}</ref> Like enterovirus, parechovirus is a genus in the [[picornavirus]] family. |- | '''[[Diabetes#type_2|Diabetes mellitus type 2]]''' | Type 2 diabetes is associated with cytomegalovirus,<ref name="pmid16108236">{{cite journal| vauthors=Roberts BW, Cech I| title=Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus. | journal=South Med J | date = 2005 | volume= 98 | issue= 7 | pages = 686-92 | pmid=16108236 | doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D | pmc= | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16108236 }} </ref> [[hepatitis C virus]],<ref name="pmid19340895">{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Francesco | last2 = Alaei | first2 = Mahnaz | title=Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes | journal=World journal of gastroenterology | volume=15 | issue=13 | date =Apr 7, 2009 | issn=1007-9327 | pmid=19340895 | pmc=2669937 | doi=10.3748/wjg.15.1537 | page=1537}}</ref> [[enteroviruses]]<ref name="pmid19266182" /> and ljungan virus,<ref name="pmid19780970">{{cite journal | last = Holmberg | first = Rebecka | last2 = Klitz | first2 = William | last3 = Blixt | first3 = Martin | last4 = Berggren | first4 = Per-Olof | last5 = Juntti-Berggren | first5 = Lisa | last6 = Niklasson | first6 = Bo | title=Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats | journal=Microbiology and immunology | volume=53 | issue=10 | date = 2009 | issn=0385-5600 | pmid=19780970 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x | pages=567–572}}</ref> In rabbits, exposure to toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 from a staphylococcus aureus infection leads to impaired glucose tolerance, the hallmark of type 2 diabetes in humans.<ref name="pmid25714716">{{Cite journal | last = Vu|first = Bao G. | last2 = Stach | first2 = Christopher S. | last3 = Kulhankova | first3 = Katarina | last4 = Salgado-Pabón | first4 = Wilmara | last5 = Klingelhutz | first5 = Aloysius J. | last6 = Schlievert | first6 = Patrick M. | date = 2015-02-24 | title = Chronic superantigen exposure induces systemic inflammation, elevated bloodstream endotoxin, and abnormal glucose tolerance in rabbits: possible role in diabetes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25714716/|journal=mBio|volume=6|issue=2| pages = e02554|doi=10.1128/mBio.02554-14|issn=2150-7511|pmc=4358007|pmid=25714716}}</ref> |- | '''Dilated cardiomyopathy''' | Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with [[enterovirus]]es such as [[coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid12015932">{{cite journal | last = San Martín | first = Miguel A. | last2 = García | first2 = Ángel | last3 = Rodríguez | first3 = Francisco J. | last4 = Terol | first4 = Ignacio | title=Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas | journal=Revista espanola de cardiologia | volume=55 | issue=5 | date = 2002 | issn=0300-8932 | pmid=12015932 | doi=10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x | pages=514–524 | language=es}}</ref> |- | '''Epilepsy''' | Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is associated with infection by [[human herpesvirus 6#HPV6B|human herpesvirus 6 virus variant B]] (HHV-6B) of the astrocyte cells of the brain.<ref name="pmid17535102">{{cite journal | last = Fotheringham | first = Julie | last2 = Donati | first2 = Donatella | last3 = Akhyani | first3 = Nahid | last4 = Fogdell-Hahn | first4 = Anna | last5 = Vortmeyer | first5 = Alexander | last6 = Heiss | first6 = John D | last7 = Williams | first7 = Elizabeth | last8 = Weinstein | first8 = Steven | last9 = Bruce | first9 = Derek A | last10 = Gaillard | first10 = William D | last11 = Sato | first11 = Susumu | last12 = Theodore | first12 = William H | last13 = Jacobson | first13 = Steven | editor-last = Graeber | editor-first = Manuel | title=Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | journal=PLoS medicine | volume=4 | issue=5 | date = May 29, 2007 | issn=1549-1676 | pmid=17535102 | pmc=1880851 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180 | page=e180}}</ref><ref name="pmid25840441">{{Cite journal | last = Kawamura | first = Yoshiki | last2 = Nakayama | first2 = Ai | last3 = Kato | first3 = Taichi | last4 = Miura | first4 = Hiroki | last5 = Ishihara | first5 = Naoko | last6 = Ihira | first6 = Masaru | last7 = Takahashi | first7 = Yukitoshi | last8 = Matsuda | first8 = Kazumi | last9 = Yoshikawa | first9 = Tetsushi | date = 2015-10-01 | title = Pathogenic Role of Human Herpesvirus 6B Infection in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25840441/|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=212|issue=7|pages=1014–1021|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiv160|issn=1537-6613|pmid=25840441}}</ref> Epilepsy is associated with HPV infection of the brain.<ref name="pmid23280839">{{Cite journal | last = Chen | first = Julie | last2 = Tsai | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Parker | first3 = Whitney E. | last4 = Aronica | first4 = Eleonora | last5 = Baybis | first5 = Marianna | last6 = Crino | first6 = Peter B. | date = Dec 2012 | title = Detection of human papillomavirus in human focal cortical dysplasia type IIB|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280839/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=72|issue=6 | pages = 881–892|doi=10.1002/ana.23795|issn=1531-8249|pmid=23280839}}</ref> |- | '''[[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]''' | Guillain-Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium [[campylobacter jejuni]],<ref name="pmid24000328">{{Cite journal | last = Nyati|first = Kishan Kumar | last2 = Nyati | first2 = Roopanshi | date = 2013 | title = Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24000328/|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2013 | pages = 852195|doi=10.1155/2013/852195|issn=2314-6141|pmc=3755430|pmid=24000328}}</ref> and with the viruses cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid8797462">{{Cite journal | last = Visser | first = L.H. | last2 = van der Meché | first2 = F.G. | last3 = Meulstee | first3 = J. | last4 = Rothbarth | first4 = P.P. | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = B.C. | last6 = Schmitz | first6 = P.I. | last7 = van Doorn | first7 = P.A. | date = Sep 1996 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8797462/|journal=Neurology|volume=47|issue=3 | pages = 668–673|doi=10.1212/wnl.47.3.668|issn=0028-3878|pmid=8797462}}</ref> and enterovirus.<ref name="pmid10815319">{{cite journal| vauthors=Clement O, Vázquez M, Pérez EE, Magaña A, Santillán MA, Briseño B| title=[Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. | journal=Gac Med Mex | date = 2000 | volume= 136 | issue= 2 | pages = 93-7 | pmid=10815319 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://europepmc.article/med/10815319 }} </ref> |- | '''[[Hypertension]]''' | Hypertension (high blood pressure) is associated with enteroviruses such as [[Coxsackie_B#B5|coxsackievirus B5]] and [[echovirus]].<ref name="pmid24940338">{{Cite journal | last = Okonko|first = I.O. | last2 = Adebiyi | first2 = A.A. | last3 = Ogah | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Adu | first4 = F. D. | date = Dec 2013 | title = Enteroviruses as a possible cause of hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertensive heart failure (HHF) in South western Nigeria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940338/|journal=African Health Sciences|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1098–1106|doi=10.4314/ahs.v13i4.34|issn=1729-0503|pmc=4056497|pmid=24940338}}</ref> |- | '''Infertility''' | Infertility is associated with an infection of the endometrium with the A variant of [[human herpesvirus 6]] virus (HHV-6A ).<ref name="pmid27367597">{{Cite journal | last = Marci|first = Roberto | last2 = Gentili | first2 = Valentina | last3 = Bortolotti | first3 = Daria | last4 = Lo Monte | first4 = Giuseppe | last5 = Caselli | first5 = Elisabetta | last6 = Bolzani | first6 = Silvia | last7 = Rotola | first7 = Antonella | last8 = Di Luca | first8 = Dario | last9 = Rizzo | first9 = Roberta | date = 2016 | title=Presence of HHV-6A in Endometrial Epithelial Cells from Women with Primary Unexplained Infertility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27367597/|journal=PloS One|volume=11|issue=7| pages = e0158304|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0158304|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4930213|pmid=27367597}}</ref> |- | '''[[Interstitial cystitis]]''' | The ulcerative form of interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with polyomavirus, and in particular BK virus.<ref name="pmid26325074">{{Cite journal | last = Winter | first = Benjamin J. | last2 = O'Connell | first2 = Helen E. | last3 = Bowden | first3 = Scott | last4 = Carey | first4 = Marcus | last5 = Eisen | first5 = Damon P. | date = 2015 | title=A Case Control Study Reveals that Polyomaviruria Is Significantly Associated with Interstitial Cystitis and Vesical Ulceration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26325074/|journal=PloS One|volume=10|issue=9| pages = e0137310|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0137310|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4556646|pmid=26325074}}</ref> Interstitial cystitis is associated with an infection of the bladder tissues with [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid29653163">{{Cite journal | last = Jhang|first = Jia-Fong | last2 = Hsu | first2 = Yung-Hsiang | last3 = Peng | first3 = Chih-Wen | last4 = Jiang | first4 = Yuan-Hong | last5 = Ho | first5 = Han-Chen | last6 = Kuo | first6 = Hann-Chorng | date = Sep 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr Virus as a Potential Etiology of Persistent Bladder Inflammation in Human Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29653163/|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=200|issue=3 | pages = 590–596|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2018.03.133|issn=1527-3792|pmid=29653163}}</ref> |- | '''[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]''' | Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid17359324">{{cite journal | last = Sobieszczańska | first = B.M. | last2 = Osek | first2 = J. | last3 = Waśko-Czopnik | first3 = D. | last4 = Dworniczek | first4 = E. | last5 = Jermakow | first5 = K. | title=Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume=13 | issue=4 | date = 2007 | issn=1198-743X | pmid=17359324 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x | pages=404–407}}</ref> and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis,<ref name="pmid17913930">{{cite journal | last = Scanu | first = A.M. | last2 = Bull | first2 = T.J. | last3 = Cannas | first3 = S. | last4 = Sanderson | first4 = J.D. | last5 = Sechi | first5 = L.A. | last6 = Dettori | first6 = G. | last7 = Zanetti | first7 = S. | last8 = Hermon-Taylor | first8 = J. | title=Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities | journal=Journal of clinical microbiology | volume=45 | issue=12 | date =Oct 3, 2007 | issn=0095-1137 | pmid=17913930 | pmc=2168579 | doi=10.1128/jcm.01371-07 | pages=3883–3890}}</ref> the protozoan parasite [[Giardia lamblia]],<ref name="pmid19821794">{{cite journal | last = Morken | first = Mette Helvik | last2 = Valeur | first2 = Jørgen | last3 = Norin | first3 = Elisabeth | last4 = Midtvedt | first4 = Tore | last5 = Nysæter | first5 = Gunnar | last6 = Berstad | first6 = Arnold | title=Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome | journal=Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology | volume=44 | issue=11 | date =Oct 13, 2009 | issn=0036-5521 | pmid=19821794 | doi=10.3109/00365520903274401 | pages=1296–1303}}</ref> and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite [[blastocystis hominis]].<ref name="pmid19393117">{{cite journal | last = STENSVOLD | first = C.R. | last2 = LEWIS | first2 = H.C. | last3 = HAMMERUM | first3 = A.M. | last4 = PORSBO | first4 = L.J. | last5 = NIELSEN | first5 = S.S. | last6 = OLSEN | first6 = K. E.P. | last7 = ARENDRUP | first7 = M.C. | last8 = NIELSEN | first8 = H.V. | last9 = MØLBAK | first9 = K. | title=Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite | journal=Epidemiology and infection | volume=137 | issue=11 | date =Apr 27, 2009 | issn=0950-2688 | pmid=19393117 | doi=10.1017/s0950268809002672 | pages=1655–1663}}</ref> Irritable bowel syndrome in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.<ref name="pmid15258093">{{Cite journal | last = Johnson | first =Eugene H. | authorlink = | last2 = Windsor | first2 = Jeffrey J. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Clark | first3 = C. Graham | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2004 | title = Emerging from obscurity: biological, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258093/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=17|issue=3 | pages = 553–570, table of contents|doi=10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004|issn=0893-8512|pmc=|pmid=15258093|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> |- | '''[[Lower back pain]]''' | Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.<ref name="pmid23404353">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Sorensen | first2 = Joan S. | last3 = Christensen | first3 = Berit Schiott | last4 = Manniche | first4 = Claus | date = Apr 2013 | title = Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23404353/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 697–707|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631045|pmid=23404353}}</ref><ref name="pmid23397187">{{Cite journal | last = Albert | first = Hanne B. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = Peter | last3 = Rollason | first3 = Jess | last4 = Sorensen | first4 = Joan Solgaard | last5 = Worthington | first5 = Tony | last6 = Pedersen | first6 = Mogens Bach | last7 = Nørgaard | first7 = Hanne Schack | last8 = Vernallis | first8 = Ann | last9 = Busch | first9 = Frederik | date = Apr 2013 | title = Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23397187/|journal=European Spine Journal: Official Publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|volume=22|issue=4 | pages = 690–696|doi=10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z|issn=1432-0932|pmc=3631023|pmid=23397187}}</ref> |- | '''[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|Lupus]]''' | Lupus is associated with the viruses [[parvovirus B19]],<ref name="pmid18549931">{{Cite journal | last = Aslanidis | first = Spyros | last2 = Pyrpasopoulou | first2 = Athina | last3 = Kontotasios | first3 = Kostas | last4 = Doumas | first4 = Stella | last5 = Zamboulis | first5 = Chryssanthos | date = Jul 2008 | title = Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18549931/|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=19|issue=5 | pages = 314–318|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013|issn=1879-0828|pmid=18549931}}</ref> Epstein-Barr virus,<ref name="pmid16896283">{{Cite journal | last = James | first = Judith A. | last2 = Harley | first2 = John B. | last3 = Scofield | first3 = R. Hal | date = Sep 2006 | title = Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16896283/|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|volume=18|issue=5 | pages = 462–467|doi=10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94|issn=1040-8711|pmid=16896283}}</ref> cytomegalovirus<ref name="pmid9272302">{{Cite journal | last = Rider | first = J.R. | last2 = Ollier | first2 = W.E. | last3 = Lock | first3 = R.J. | last4 = Brookes | first4 = S.T. | last5 = Pamphilon | first5 = D.H. | date = Jul 1997 | title = Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9272302/|journal=Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology|volume=15|issue=4 | pages = 405–409|issn=0392-856X|pmid=9272302}}</ref> and torque teno virus.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Prevalence and genetic diversity of torque teno virus in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in a reference service in Mato Grosso do Sul | date = Jan 2012|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22286645/|journal=Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia|volume=52|issue=1 | pages = 49–54 | last = Costa | first = Márcio Reis da | last2 = Costa | first2 = Izaias Pereira da | last3 = Devalle | first3 = Sylvie | last4 = Castro | first4 = Ana Rita Coimbra Motta de | last5 = Freitas | first5 = Solange Zacalusni|pmid=22286645|issn=1809-4570}}</ref> |- | '''Macular degeneration''' | Neovascular (wet) macular degeneration is associated with high titers of cytomegalovirus.<ref name="pmid15364212">{{Cite journal | last = Miller | first = Daniel M. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Legra | first3 = Jessica | last4 = Dubovy | first4 = Sander R. | last5 = Sũner | first5 = Ivan J. | last6 = Sedmak | first6 = Daniel D. | last7 = Dix | first7 = Richard D. | last8 = Cousins | first8 = Scott W. | date = Sep 2004 | title = The association of prior cytomegalovirus infection with neovascular age-related macular degeneration | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15364212/|journal=American Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=138|issue=3 | pages = 323–328|doi=10.1016/j.ajo.2004.03.018|issn=0002-9394|pmid=15364212}}</ref><ref name="pmid22570607">{{Cite journal | last = Cousins | first = Scott W. | last2 = Espinosa-Heidmann | first2 = Diego G. | last3 = Miller | first3 = Daniel M. | last4 = Pereira-Simon | first4 = Simone | last5 = Hernandez | first5 = Eleut P. | last6 = Chien | first6 = Hsin | last7 = Meier-Jewett | first7 = Courtney | last8 = Dix | first8 = Richard D. | date = 2012 | title = Macrophage activation associated with chronic murine cytomegalovirus infection results in more severe experimental choroidal neovascularization | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22570607/|journal=PLoS pathogens|volume=8|issue=4| pages = e1002671|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002671|issn=1553-7374|pmc=3343109|pmid=22570607}}</ref> |- | '''[[Metabolic syndrome]]''' | Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria [[chlamydia pneumoniae]]<ref name="pmid20016424">{{Cite journal | last = Lin | first = Ching-Yih | last2 = Su | first2 = Shih-Bin | last3 = Chang | first3 = Chih-Ching | last4 = Lee | first4 = Tsung-Ming | last5 = Shieh | first5 = Jiunn-Min | last6 = Guo | first6 = How-Ran | date = Dec 2009 | title = The association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and metabolic syndrome in Taiwanese adults|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20016424/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=102|issue=12|pages=1203–1208|doi=10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9|issn=1541-8243|pmid=20016424}}</ref> and helicobacter pylori, as well as the viruses cytomegalovirus] and herpes simplex virus 1.<ref name="pmid17140429">{{Cite journal | last = Nabipour | first = Iraj | last2 = Vahdat | first2 = Katayon | last3 = Jafari | first3 = Seyed Mojtaba | last4 = Pazoki | first4 = Raha | last5 = Sanjdideh | first5 = Zahra | date = 2006-12-01 | title = The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17140429/|journal=Cardiovascular Diabetology|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1475-2840-5-25|issn=1475-2840|pmc=1697801|pmid=17140429}}</ref> |- | '''[[Multiple sclerosis]]''' | Multiple sclerosis, a demyelinating disease, is associated with Epstein-Barr virus<ref name="pmid16927411">{{Cite journal | last = Haahr | first = Sven | last2 = Höllsberg | first2 = Per | date = Sep 2006 | title = Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16927411/|journal=Reviews in Medical Virology|volume=16|issue=5|pages=297–310|doi=10.1002/rmv.503|issn=1052-9276|pmid=16927411}}</ref> (and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus<ref name="pmid25740864">{{Cite journal | last = Mechelli|first = Rosella | last2 = Manzari | first2 = Caterina | last3 = Policano | first3 = Claudia | last4 = Annese | first4 = Anita | last5 = Picardi | first5 = Ernesto | last6 = Umeton | first6 = Renato | last7 = Fornasiero | first7 = Arianna | last8 = D'Erchia | first8 = Anna Maria | last9 = Buscarinu | first9 = Maria Chiara | date = 2015-03-31 | title = Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25740864/|journal=Neurology|volume=84|issue=13|pages=1362–1368|doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420|issn=1526-632X|pmc=4388746|pmid=25740864}}</ref> which is found in the brain tissues of most ME patients,<ref name="pmid29394264">{{Cite journal | last = Hassani|first = Asma | last2 = Corboy | first2 = John R. | last3 = Al-Salam | first3 = Suhail | last4 = Khan | first4 = Gulfaraz | date = 2018 | title = Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394264/|journal=PloS One|volume=13|issue=2| pages = e0192109|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192109|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5796799|pmid=29394264}}</ref> [[human herpesvirus 6]],<ref name="pmid20926836">{{Cite journal | last = Voumvourakis | first = Konstantine I. | last2 = Kitsos | first2 = Dimitrios K. | last3 = Tsiodras | first3 = Sotirios | last4 = Petrikkos | first4 = George | last5 = Stamboulis | first5 = Eleftherios | date = Nov 2010 | title = Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20926836/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=85|issue=11|pages=1023–1030|doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0350|issn=1942-5546|pmc=2966366|pmid=20926836}}</ref> human herpesvirus 6 variant A,<ref name="pmid32038605">{{Cite journal | last = Engdahl|first = Elin | last2 = Gustafsson | first2 = Rasmus | last3 = Huang | first3 = Jesse | last4 = Biström | first4 = Martin | last5 = Lima Bomfim | first5 = Izaura | last6 = Stridh | first6 = Pernilla | last7 = Khademi | first7 = Mohsen | last8 = Brenner | first8 = Nicole | last9 = Butt | first9 = Julia | date = 2019 | title=Increased Serological Response Against Human Herpesvirus 6A Is Associated With Risk for Multiple Sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32038605/|journal=Frontiers in Immunology|volume=10|pages=2715|doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.02715|issn=1664-3224|pmc=6988796|pmid=32038605}}</ref> [[varicella zoster virus]],<ref name="pmid18306233">{{Cite journal | last = Sotelo|first = Julio | last2 = Martínez-Palomo | first2 = Adolfo | last3 = Ordoñez | first3 = Graciela | last4 = Pineda | first4 = Benjamin | date = Mar 2008 | title = Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18306233/|journal=Annals of Neurology|volume=63|issue=3 | pages = 303–311|doi=10.1002/ana.21316|issn=1531-8249|pmid=18306233}}</ref> and the bacterium chlamydia pneumoniae.<ref name="pmid12606878">{{Cite journal | last = Munger | first = Kassandra L. | last2 = Peeling | first2 = Rosanna W. | last3 = Hernán | first3 = Miguel A. | last4 = Chasan-Taber | first4 = Lisa | last5 = Olek | first5 = Michael J. | last6 = Hankinson | first6 = Susan E. | last7 = Hunter | first7 = David | last8 = Ascherio | first8 = Alberto | date = Mar 2003 | title = Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of multiple sclerosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12606878/|journal=Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)|volume=14|issue=2|pages=141–147|doi=10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E|issn=1044-3983|pmid=12606878}}</ref> Epsilon toxin from the bacterium Clostridium perfringen may be a triggering factor for MS.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Clostridium epsilon toxin is excessive in multiple sclerosis and provokes multifocal lesions in mouse models|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10145922/|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=133|issue=9|pages=e169643|last=Reder|first=Anthony T.|doi=10.1172/JCI169643|pmc=10145922|pmid=37115699|issn=0021-9738}}</ref> |- | '''Myocardial infarction''' | Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with [[chlamydia pneumoniae]],<ref name="pmid15791511">{{Cite journal | last = Arcari|first = Christine M. | last2 = Gaydos | first2 = Charlotte A. | last3 = Nieto | first3 = F. Javier | last4 = Krauss | first4 = Margot | last5 = Nelson | first5 = Kenrad E. | date = 2005-04-15 | title = Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and acute myocardial infarction in young men in the United States military: the importance of timing of exposure measurement|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791511/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1123–1130|doi=10.1086/428730|issn=1537-6591|pmid=15791511}}</ref> [[cytomegalovirus]]<ref name="pmid14618212">{{Cite journal | last = Gabrylewicz|first = Bogna | last2 = Mazurek | first2 = Urszula | last3 = Ochała | first3 = Andrzej | last4 = Sliupkas-Dyrda | first4 = Elektra | last5 = Garbocz | first5 = Piotr | last6 = Pyrlik | first6 = Andrzej | last7 = Mróz | first7 = Iwona | last8 = Wilczok | first8 = Tadeusz | last9 = Tendera | first9 = Michał | date = Oct 2003 | title = Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14618212/|journal=Kardiologia Polska|volume=59|issue=10|pages=283–292|issn=0022-9032|pmid=14618212}}</ref> and [[Coxsackie B virus]] (an enterovirus).<ref name="pmid18061067" /><br /> Coxsackie B virus and enterovirus are also associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis.<ref name="pmid22966951">{{Cite journal | last = Gaaloul|first = Imed | last2 = Riabi | first2 = Samira | last3 = Harrath | first3 = Rafik | last4 = Evans | first4 = Mark | last5 = Salem | first5 = Nidhal H. | last6 = Mlayeh | first6 = Souheil | last7 = Huber | first7 = Sally | last8 = Aouni | first8 = Mahjoub | date = 2012-09-11 | title = Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22966951/|journal=BMC infectious diseases|volume=12|pages=212|doi=10.1186/1471-2334-12-212|issn=1471-2334|pmc=3462138|pmid=22966951}}</ref> An autopsy study found 40% of those who died of sudden heart attack had enterovirus markers in their endomyocardial tissues, compared to 8% in controls.<ref name="pmid18061067">{{Cite journal | last = Andréoletti|first = Laurent | last2 = Ventéo | first2 = Lydie | last3 = Douche-Aourik | first3 = Fatima | last4 = Canas | first4 = Frédéric | last5 = Lorin de la Grandmaison | first5 = Geoffroy | last6 = Jacques | first6 = Jérôme | last7 = Moret | first7 = Hélène | last8 = Jovenin | first8 = Nicolas | last9 = Mosnier | first9 = Jean-François | date = 2007-12-04 | title = Active Coxsackieviral B infection is associated with disruption of dystrophin in endomyocardial tissue of patients who died suddenly of acute myocardial infarction | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18061067/|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=50|issue=23|pages=2207–2214|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080|issn=1558-3597|pmid=18061067}}</ref> |- | '''Myopia''' | Myopia (short-sightedness) is associated with childhood febrile illnesses of [[measles]], rubella, pertussis and mumps.<ref name="pmid26846593">{{Cite journal | last = Guggenheim|first = J.A. | last2 = Williams | first2 = C. | last3 = UK Biobank Eye and Vision Consortium | date = Apr 2016 | title = Childhood febrile illness and the risk of myopia in UK Biobank participants|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846593/|journal=Eye (London, England)|volume=30|issue=4 | pages = 608–614|doi=10.1038/eye.2016.7|issn=1476-5454|pmc=4834038|pmid=26846593}}</ref> |- | '''[[Obesity]]''' | Obesity is associated with [[adenovirus 36]], which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.<ref name="pmid15611785">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = R.L. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = N.V. | last3 = Allison | first3 = D.B. | last4 = Bowen | first4 = R.L. | last5 = Israel | first5 = B.A. | last6 = Albu | first6 = J.B. | last7 = Augustus | first7 = A.S. | date = Mar 2005 | title = Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15611785/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=29|issue=3|pages=281–286|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830|issn=0307-0565|pmid=15611785}}</ref><ref name="pmid19593728">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | last2 = Lee | first2 = Insil | last3 = Shin | first3 = Hye-Jung | last4 = He | first4 = Jia | date = Apr 2010 | title = Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19593728/|journal=International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=157–160|doi=10.3109/17477160903111789|issn=1747-7174|pmid=19593728}}</ref> It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36 (and likewise adenovirus 5 or adenovirus 37) will develop increased obesity.<ref name="pmid19960394">{{Cite journal | last = McAllister | first = Emily J. | last2 = Dhurandhar | first2 = Nikhil V. | last3 = Keith | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Aronne | first4 = Louis J. | last5 = Barger | first5 = Jamie | last6 = Baskin | first6 = Monica | last7 = Benca | first7 = Ruth M. | last8 = Biggio | first8 = Joseph | last9 = Boggiano | first9 = Mary M. | date = Nov 2009 | title = Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19960394/|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=49|issue=10 | pages = 868–913|doi=10.1080/10408390903372599|issn=1549-7852|pmc=2932668|pmid=19960394}}</ref> And it is known adenovirus 36 causes a proliferation of fat cells (adipocytes).<ref name="pmid26184280">{{Cite journal | last = Ponterio|first = Eleonora | last2 = Gnessi | first2 = Lucio | date = 2015-07-08 | title = Adenovirus 36 and Obesity: An Overview | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26184280/|journal=Viruses|volume=7|issue=7 | pages = 3719–3740|doi=10.3390/v7072787|issn=1999-4915|pmc=4517116|pmid=26184280}}</ref><br /><br />Evidence suggests that obesity may be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.<ref name="pmid17420782">{{Cite journal | last = Vasilakopoulou|first = A. | last2 = le Roux | first2 = C.W. | date = Sep 2007 | title = Could a virus contribute to weight gain?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17420782/|journal=International Journal of Obesity (2005)|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1350–1356|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623|issn=0307-0565|pmid=17420782}}</ref><ref name="pmid17908526">{{Cite journal | last = Atkinson | first = Richard L. | date = Oct 2007 | title = Viruses as an etiology of obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17908526/|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=82|issue=10|pages=1192–1198|doi=10.4065/82.10.1192|issn=0025-6196|pmid=17908526}}</ref> Obesity is also associated with higher gut levels of certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to bacteroidetes bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such as clostridium, [[staphylococcus]], [[streptococcus]], and helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more bacteroidetes bacteria.<ref name="pmid17183309">{{Cite journal | last = Ley|first = Ruth E. | last2 = Turnbaugh | first2 = Peter J. | last3 = Klein | first3 = Samuel | last4 = Gordon | first4 = Jeffrey I. | date = 2006-12-21 | title = Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183309/|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1022–1023|doi=10.1038/4441022a|issn=1476-4687|pmid=17183309}}</ref> |- | '''[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]''' | Obsessive-compulsive disorder is associated with streptococcus<ref name="pmid17703915" /> and borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> species bacteria. |- | '''[[Panic disorder]]''' | Panic disorder is associated with borrelia<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and bartonella species bacteria.<ref name="pmid18092060" /> |- | '''[[Parkinson's disease]]''' | Parkinson's disease is associated with [[enterovirus]]/picornavirus<ref name="pmid29899977">{{Cite journal | last = Dourmashkin | first = Robert R. | last2 = McCall | first2 = Sherman A. | last3 = Dourmashkin | first3 = Neil | last4 = Hannah | first4 = Matthew J. | date = 2018 | title = Virus-like particles and enterovirus antigen found in the brainstem neurons of Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29899977/|journal=F1000Research|volume=7 | pages = 302|doi=10.12688/f1000research.13626.2|issn=2046-1402|pmc=5968367|pmid=29899977}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | title = Picornavirus May Be Linked to Parkinson's Disease through Viral Antigen in Dopamine-Containing Neurons of Substantia Nigra | date = 2022-03-10|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35336174/|journal=Microorganisms|volume=10|issue=3 | pages = 599 | last = Niklasson | first = Bo | last2 = Lindquist | first2 = Lars | last3 = Klitz | first3 = William | last4 = Fredrikson | first4 = Sten | last5 = Morgell | first5 = Roland | last6 = Mohammadi | first6 = Reza | last7 = Netherlands Brain Bank | first7 = null | last8 = Karapetyan | first8 = Yervand | last9 = Englund | first9 = Elisabet|doi=10.3390/microorganisms10030599|pmc=8953350|pmid=35336174|issn=2076-2607}}</ref> [[influenza#influenza_A|influenza A]] virus,<ref name="pmid10507986">{{Cite journal | last = Takahashi|first = M. | last2 = Yamada | first2 = T. | date = Jun 1999 | title = Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10507986/|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=52|issue=3 | pages = 89–98|issn=1344-6304|pmid=10507986}}</ref> as well as the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid20350582">{{Cite journal | last = Miman | first = Ozlem | last2 = Kusbeci | first2 = Ozge Yilmaz | last3 = Aktepe | first3 = Orhan Cem | last4 = Cetinkaya | first4 = Zafer | date = 2010-05-21 | title = The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350582/|journal=Neuroscience Letters|volume=475|issue=3|pages=129–131|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057|issn=1872-7972|pmid=20350582}}</ref> |- | '''[[Psoriasis]]''' | Psoriasis is associated with a helicobacter pylori trigger.<ref name="pmid17642857">{{Cite journal | last = Qayoom|first = S. | last2 = Ahmad | first2 = Q.M. | date = Mar 2003 | title = Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17642857/|journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology|volume=69|issue=2|pages=133–134|issn=0973-3922|pmid=17642857}}</ref> |- | '''[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]''' | Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to the bacterium porphyromonas gingivalis,<ref name="pmid27605245">{{Cite journal | last = Johansson | first = Linda | last2 = Sherina | first2 = Natalia | last3 = Kharlamova | first3 = Nastya | last4 = Potempa | first4 = Barbara | last5 = Larsson | first5 = Barbro | last6 = Israelsson | first6 = Lena | last7 = Potempa | first7 = Jan | last8 = Rantapää-Dahlqvist | first8 = Solbritt | last9 = Lundberg | first9 = Karin | date = 2016-09-07 | title = Concentration of antibodies against Porphyromonas gingivalis is increased before the onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27605245/|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=18|pages=201|doi=10.1186/s13075-016-1100-4|issn=1478-6362|pmc=5015325|pmid=27605245}}</ref> and the bacterium proteus mirabilis.<ref name="pmid17206398">{{Cite journal | last = Rashid | first = Taha | last2 = Ebringer | first2 = Alan | date = Jul 2007 | title = Rheumatoid arthritis is linked to Proteus--the evidence|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17206398/|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|volume=26|issue=7|pages=1036–1043|doi=10.1007/s10067-006-0491-z|issn=0770-3198|pmid=17206398}}</ref> Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with [[parvovirus B19]].<ref name="pmid18549931" /> Antibodies to [[borrelia]] outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid17881508">{{Cite journal | last = Hsieh|first = Yu-Fan | last2 = Liu | first2 = Han-Wen | last3 = Hsu | first3 = Tsai-Ching | last4 = Wei | first4 = James C.-C. | last5 = Shih | first5 = Chien-Ming | last6 = Krause | first6 = Peter J. | last7 = Tsay | first7 = Gregory J. | date = Nov 2007 | title = Serum reactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in patients with rheumatoid arthritis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881508/|journal=Clinical and vaccine immunology: CVI|volume=14|issue=11|pages=1437–1441|doi=10.1128/CVI.00151-07|issn=1556-6811|pmc=2168181|pmid=17881508}}</ref> |- | '''[[Sarcoidosis]]''' | Sarcoidosis is associated with mycobacteria<ref name="pmid16926652">{{Cite journal | last = Drake | first = Wonder Puryear | last2 = Newman | first2 = Lee S. | date = Sep 2006 | title = Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16926652/|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|volume=12|issue=5 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94|issn=1070-5287|pmid=16926652}}</ref> species and the bacterium [[helicobacter pylori]].<ref name="pmid15068230">{{Cite journal | last = Herndon | first = Betty L. | last2 = Vlach | first2 = Victoria | last3 = Dew | first3 = Michelle | last4 = Willsie | first4 = Sandra K. | date = Mar 2004 | title = Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15068230/|journal=Journal of Investigative Medicine: The Official Publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=137–143|doi=10.1136/jim-52-02-23|issn=1081-5589|pmid=15068230}}</ref> |- | '''Schizophrenia''' | Schizophrenia is associated with [[Borna disease virus]],<ref name="pmid12857781" /> the bacterium chlamydia trachomatis,<ref name="pmid20602604">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Aug 2010 | title = The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20602604/|journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry|volume=11|issue=5 | pages = 739–743|doi=10.3109/15622971003653246|issn=1814-1412|pmid=20602604}}</ref> borrelia species bacteria (Lyme disease),<ref name="pmid7943444" /> and Bartonella henselae bacteria (cat scratch disease).<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lashnits | first = Erin | last2 = Maggi | first2 = Ricardo | last3 = Jarskog | first3 = Fredrik | last4 = Bradley | first4 = Julie | last5 = Breitschwerdt | first5 = Edward | last6 = Frohlich | first6 = Flavio | date = 2021-03-15 | title = Schizophrenia and Bartonella spp. Infection: A Pilot Case-Control Study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33728987/|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)|doi=10.1089/vbz.2020.2729|issn=1557-7759|pmid=33728987}}</ref> One study found a central nervous system infection as a child (particularly with coxsackievirus B5) increases the risk of developing schizophrenia as an adult by nearly 5-fold.<ref name="pmid9279617">{{Cite journal | last = Rantakallio|first = P. | last2 = Jones | first2 = P. | last3 = Moring | first3 = J. | last4 = Von Wendt | first4 = L. | date = Aug 1997 | title = Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9279617/|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=26|issue=4 | pages = 837–843|doi=10.1093/ije/26.4.837|issn=0300-5771|pmid=9279617}}</ref> A large study found [[influenza]] virus infection during the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk the baby will get schizophrenia later in life by 7-fold; there was no increased risk if the mother caught influenza during the second or third trimesters.<ref name="pmid15289276">{{Cite journal | last = Brown | first = Alan S. | last2 = Begg | first2 = Melissa D. | last3 = Gravenstein | first3 = Stefan | last4 = Schaefer | first4 = Catherine A. | last5 = Wyatt | first5 = Richard J. | last6 = Bresnahan | first6 = Michaeline | last7 = Babulas | first7 = Vicki P. | last8 = Susser | first8 = Ezra S. | date = Aug 2004 | title = Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15289276/|journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=8 | pages = 774–780|doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774|issn=0003-990X|pmid=15289276}}</ref> Schizophrenia is linked to an aberrant immune response to [[Epstein-Barr virus]].<ref name="pmid30462333">{{Cite journal | last = Dickerson | first = Faith | last2 = Jones-Brando | first2 = Lorraine | last3 = Ford | first3 = Glen | last4 = Genovese | first4 = Giulio | last5 = Stallings | first5 = Cassie | last6 = Origoni | first6 = Andrea | last7 = O'Dushlaine | first7 = Colm | last8 = Katsafanas | first8 = Emily | last9 = Sweeney | first9 = Kevin | date = 2019-09-11 | title = Schizophrenia is Associated With an Aberrant Immune Response to Epstein-Barr Virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30462333/|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=45|issue=5|pages=1112–1119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sby164|issn=1745-1701|pmc=6737467|pmid=30462333}}</ref> |- | '''[[Sjögren's syndrome]]''' | Primary Sjögren's syndrome is associated with the [[enterovirus]] [[coxsackie B]] virus.<ref name="pmid15457458">{{Cite journal | last = Triantafyllopoulou|first = Antigoni | last2 = Tapinos | first2 = Nikos | last3 = Moutsopoulos | first3 = Haralampos M. | date = Sep 2004 | title = Evidence for coxsackievirus infection in primary Sjögren's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457458/|journal=Arthritis and Rheumatism|volume=50|issue=9|pages=2897–2902|doi=10.1002/art.20463|issn=0004-3591|pmid=15457458}}</ref> |- | '''Stroke''' | Persistent [[enterovirus]] infection ([[Coxsackie B virus]] or [[echovirus]]) is linked to the development of acute stroke.<ref name="pmid28511156">{{Cite journal | last = Andriushkova | first = Natalia G. | last2 = Turchyna | first2 = Nataliia S. | last3 = Poniatowski | first3 = Vadym A. | last4 = Dolinchuk | first4 = Ludmyla V. | last5 = Melnyk | first5 = Valentyna V. | last6 = Shyrobokov | first6 = Volodymyr P. | last7 = Zakharchenko | first7 = Nataliia V. | date = 2017 | title=The role of the persistent enterovirus infection in development of acute stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28511156/|journal=Wiadomosci Lekarskie (Warsaw, Poland: 1960)|volume=70|issue=2|pages=187–191|issn=0043-5147|pmid=28511156}}</ref> Stroke is associated with the bacteria chlamydia pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid9472881">{{Cite journal | last = Cook|first = P.J. | last2 = Honeybourne | first2 = D. | last3 = Lip | first3 = G.Y. | last4 = Beevers | first4 = D.G. | last5 = Wise | first5 = R. | last6 = Davies | first6 = P. | date = Feb 1998 | title = Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9472881/|journal=Stroke|volume=29|issue=2 | pages = 404–410|doi=10.1161/01.str.29.2.404|issn=0039-2499|pmid=9472881}}</ref> [[helicobacter pylori]],<ref name="pmid12063957">{{Cite journal | last = Ponzetto|first = Antonio | last2 = Marchet | first2 = Alberto | last3 = Pellicano | first3 = Rinaldo | last4 = Lovera | first4 = Nicoletta | last5 = Chianale | first5 = Gigliola | last6 = Nobili | first6 = Marcello | last7 = Rizzetto | first7 = Mario | last8 = Cerrato | first8 = Paolo | date = May 2002 | title = Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12063957/|journal=Hepato-Gastroenterology|volume=49|issue=45 | pages = 631–634|issn=0172-6390|pmid=12063957}}</ref> mycobacterium tuberculosis,<ref name="pmid20035070">{{Cite journal | last = Sheu|first = Jau-Jiuan | last2 = Chiou | first2 = Hung-Yi | last3 = Kang | first3 = Jiunn-Horng | last4 = Chen | first4 = Yi-Hua | last5 = Lin | first5 = Herng-Ching | date = Feb 2010 | title = Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20035070/|journal=Stroke|volume=41|issue=2|pages=244–249|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735|issn=1524-4628|pmid=20035070}}</ref> and mycoplasma_pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid16148858">{{Cite journal | last = Leonardi|first = Salvatore | last2 = Pavone | first2 = Piero | last3 = Rotolo | first3 = Novella | last4 = La Rosa | first4 = Mario | date = Sep 2005 | title = Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16148858/|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=9 | pages = 843–845|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56|issn=0891-3668|pmid=16148858}}</ref> as well as the virus [[varicella zoster virus]]<ref name="pmid19815828">{{Cite journal | last = Kang|first = Jiunn-Horng | authorlink = | last2 = Ho | first2 = Jau-Der | authorlink2 = | last3 = Chen | first3 = Yi-Hua | authorlink3 = | last4 = Lin | first4 = Herng-Ching | authorlink4 = | date = Nov 2009 | title = Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815828/|journal=Stroke|volume=40|issue=11 | pages = 3443–3448|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017|issn=1524-4628|pmc=|pmid=19815828|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the fungus histoplasma.<ref name="pmid18755412">{{Cite journal | last = Cleary|first = John D. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = Margaret | last3 = Oliver | first3 = Jake | last4 = Chapman | first4 = Stanley W. | date = Sep 2008 | title = Association between Histoplasma exposure and stroke|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18755412/|journal=Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association|volume=17|issue=5 | pages = 312–319|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015|issn=1532-8511|pmid=18755412}}</ref> |- | '''Tourette syndrome''' | Tourette's is associated with the bacterium [[streptococcus]].<ref name="pmid15995031">{{Cite journal | last = Mell|first = Loren K. | authorlink = | last2 = Davis | first2 = Robert L. | authorlink2 = | last3 = Owens | first3 = David | authorlink3 = | date = Jul 2005 | title = Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and tic disorder |url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15995031/|journal=Pediatrics|volume=116|issue=1 | pages = 56–60|doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2058|issn=1098-4275|pmc=|pmid=15995031|access-date=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria mycoplasma pneumoniae,<ref name="pmid15590039">{{Cite journal | last = Müller | first = Norbert | last2 = Riedel | first2 = Michael | last3 = Blendinger | first3 = Christa | last4 = Oberle | first4 = Karin | last5 = Jacobs | first5 = Enno | last6 = Abele-Horn | first6 = Marianne | date = 2004-12-15 | title = Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15590039/|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=129|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009|issn=0165-1781|pmid=15590039}}</ref> chlamydia pneumoniae, chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite toxoplasma gondii.<ref name="pmid19890596">{{Cite journal | last = Krause | first = Daniela | last2 = Matz | first2 = Judith | last3 = Weidinger | first3 = Elif | last4 = Wagner | first4 = Jenny | last5 = Wildenauer | first5 = Agnes | last6 = Obermeier | first6 = Michael | last7 = Riedel | first7 = Michael | last8 = Müller | first8 = Norbert | date = Jun 2010 | title = Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19890596/|journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience|volume=260|issue=4 | pages = 359–363|doi=10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3|issn=1433-8491|pmid=19890596}}</ref> |- |'''Valvular heart disease''' |Heart valve disease is linked to enterovirus<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Li|first = Y. | last2 = Pan | first2 = Z. | last3 = Ji | first3 = Y. | last4 = Peng | first4 = T. | last5 = Archard | first5 = L.C. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = H. | date = Apr 2002 | title = Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11922647/|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=23|issue=7 | pages = 567–573|doi=10.1053/euhj.2001.2837|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11922647}}</ref> and coxsackievirus B<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Burch|first = G.E. | last2 = Sun | first2 = S.C. | last3 = Colcolough | first3 = H.L. | last4 = Sohal | first4 = R.S. | last5 = DePasquale | first5 = N.P. | date = Jul 1967 | title = Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5338726/|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=74|issue=1|pages=13–23|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(67)90035-x|issn=0002-8703|pmid=5338726}}</ref> infection of the heart valve tissue. |- | '''[[Vasculitis]]''' | Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,<ref name="pmid18549931" /> and [[hepatitis B virus]]. The [[hepatitis C virus]] is an established and proven cause of vasculitis. |}
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