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[[File:Overview of the Endocrine System.jpg|thumb|Overview of the Endocrine System]] The '''endocrine system''' regulate development, growth, [[energy metabolism]], reproduction, and many different behaviors. It uses a combination of glands and [[hormone]]s to send signals to the [[nervous system]] and control functions in the body.<ref name="37-5-Endocrine Glands">{{Cite book |vauthors= Clark MA, Douglas M, Choi J| publisher = OpenStax | title = Biology 2e | url =https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/1-introduction|location=Houston, Texas |chapter=37.5 Endocrine Glands |chapter-url=https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/37-5-endocrine-glands | date = Jan 30, 2022}}</ref> [[Hormone]]s are the chemicals the endocrine system uses for signalling.<ref name="37-5-Endocrine Glands"/> Several different glands exist in the body which release hormones. These hormones travel through bodily fluid, usually blood, to the target cells.<ref name="37-5-Endocrine Glands"/> == Function == Three types of hormones may be released: lipid-derived hormones such as steroids, amino-acid hormones (e.g., [[epinephrine]] and [[norepinephrine]]), and peptide hormones (e.g., [[insulin]] and [[antidiuretic hormone]].<ref name="37-1-Hormones">{{Cite book |vauthors= Clark MA, Douglas M, Choi J| publisher = OpenStax | title = Biology 2e | url =https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/1-introduction|location=Houston, Texas |chapter=37.1 Types of Hormones |chapter-url=https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/37-1-types-of-hormones | date = Jan 30, 2022}}</ref> Steroid hormones permeate tissues and can directly enter the nucleus to trigger [[DNA]] to start protein production. Protein hormones do not share this mechanism because they are unable to enter the nucleus due to their membranes being incompatible with the nuclear membrane. Instead, protein hormones attach to messenger receptor cell on the outside of the target tissues' cells. Based on the hormone that attaches, a different cascade of cellular processes will occur ending in tissue response (which could be increased enzymatic activity, cellular secretion, and [[Ion transportation|ion channel]] opening or closing).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web | url=https://www.lamission.edu/lifesciences/lecturenote/AliPhysio1/Endrocrine%20System.pdf | title=The Endocrine System | last = | first = | date = |website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> == Glands and hormones == === Pituitary === The [[pituitary gland]] is a small bulb situated at the base of the brain and both releases hormones and controls other glands which release hormones. It is under direct control of the [[hypothalamus]], a section of the [[brain]] right above the pituitary.<ref>{{Cite news |url =https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/hormonal-and-metabolic-disorders/pituitary-gland-disorders/overview-of-the-pituitary-gland | title = Overview of the Pituitary Gland - Hormonal and Metabolic Disorders|work=Merck Manuals Consumer Version|access-date=2018-10-18|language=en-US}}</ref> The hypothalamus receives input about hormonal and homeostatic states in the body, processes that information, then relays instructions to the pituitary gland to respond with certain hormones.<ref name="DoughertyCh">{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/chapter01.html|chapter=Hypothalamus: Structural Organization | url =https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/index.htm | title = Neuroscience Online: An Electronic Textbook for the Neurosciences | last = Dougherty | first = Patrick|website=McGovern Medical School - The University of Texas Medical School at Houston|access-date=2020-10-20}}</ref> For example, osmoreceptors, water-level sensing cells, in the hypothalamus detect when you are dehydrated. The hypothalamus tells the pituitary to release antidiuretic hormone, which notifies the bladder to retain water. Water levels in the body will increase and once at an adequate level the osmoreceptors stop their signaling to have ADH released<ref name=":1">{{Cite web | url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/the-pituitary-gland-and-hypothalamus/ | title = The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus {{!}} Anatomy and Physiology II|website=courses.lumenlearning.com|access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref>. {| class="wikitable" |Anterior Lobe Hormones<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.yourhormones.info/glands/pituitary-gland/ | title = Pituitary gland {{!}} You and Your Hormones|website=Society for Endocrinology|language=en|access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> | |- | * [[Growth hormone]] * [[Thyroid-stimulating hormone]] * [[Adrenocorticotropic hormone]] * [[Follicle-stimulating hormone]] * Prolactin | * Controls the growth and development of the body * Activates thyroid hormone production * Activates the adrenal glands (on the kidneys) which produce hormones like stress * Activates sperm and testosterone production in the testes and egg and estrogen production in the ovaries * Activates milk production in the breasts |} [[File:Endocrine hormones.png|thumb|'''Hormones and the endocrine system'''''Image by [[commons:File:Hormones_feedback.png|Shazz]], CC-BY-3.0'']] Pituitary dysfunction can lead to several disorders, including: * Acromegaly - an overproduction of growth hormone which can cause gigantism in children and oversized limbs in adults. * [[Cushing's Disease]] - usually caused by a tumor on the pituitary, it is an overproduction of ACTH, the hormone that stimulates the production of cortisol. It leads to consistent high levels of cortisol in the bloodstream leading to symptoms such as increased fat around the neck, memory and cognitive dysfunction, and osteoporosis. * [[Hypopituitarism]] - when the pituitary doesn’t produce enough hormones; can cause anemia, decreased appetite, [[weight change]]s, joint stiffness, and developmental problems (in children). === Hypothalamus === The [[hypothalamus]] maintains homeostasis in the body. It receives input from sources such as the vagus nerve (which can relay information about blood pressure and stomach fullness), the optic nerve (which relays levels of light), receptors in the body and skin (which relay temperature), and even has its own receptors which inform about the amount of molecules in the blood<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/limbicsystem.html | title = The Limbic System | last = Boeree | first = George|website=webspace.ship.edu|access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref> (which relays if there is an unbalanced ratio of fluid to molecules). When the hypothalamus is not functioning properly, many systems become dysregulated. This dysfunction can be caused by a number of different triggers such as an eating disorder, a tumor, brain injury or genetic mutations<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/2932/hypothalamic-dysfunction | title = Hypothalamic dysfunction {{!}} Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) – an NCATS Program|website=rarediseases.info.nih.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref>. A malfunctioning hypothalamus alters motivations to drink, eat and copulate which can lead to malnutrition or overeating, dehydration or overhydration and decreased or increased sexual behavior. Sleep patterns, activity levels, and menstruation may also change<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.braininjury-explanation.com/consequences/impact-by-brain-area/hypothalamus | title = Hypothalamus / Impact per brain area / Consequences {{!}} Braininjury-explanation.com | website = braininjury-explanation.com|language=|access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref>. === Thyroid === The [[Thyroid gland|thyroid]] is a gland located in the throat. It is necessary in proper brain functioning and health, and is important to the development of children and fetus’s brains. The gland also plays a role in controlling the breakdown and use of proteins, carbohydrates and fats<ref>{{Cite news |url =https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/thyroid-disorders/overview-of-thyroid-function | title = Overview of Thyroid Function - Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders - Merck Manuals Professional Edition|work=Merck Manuals Professional Edition|access-date=2018-10-18|language=en-US}}</ref>. The thyroid has cells that absorb iodine. The cells use iodine to produce [[Triiodothyronine|T3]] and [[Thyroxine|T4]], thyroid hormones that can moderate the body’s temperature, and vitals (e.g. blood pressure and heart rate), and the breakdown of various biomolecules such as fat<ref>{{Cite news |url =https://www.healthline.com/health/t3 | title = T3 Test: Purpose, Procedure & Risks|work=Healthline|access-date=2018-10-18|language=en}}</ref>. Dysfunction of this gland can mean an overproduction or [[Hashimoto's thyroiditis (hypothyroidism)|underproduction of its hormones]]. Malfunction can lead symptoms such as to hair loss, [[Muscle fatigability|muscle fatigue]] and weakness, sensitivity to environmental [[Body temperature|temperature]] changes<ref>{{Cite news |url =https://www.healthline.com/health/t3#uses-amp-symptoms | title = T3 Test: Purpose, Procedure & Risks|work=Healthline|access-date=2018-10-18|language=en}}</ref>. ==Relationship to ME/CFS == [[Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis]] (HPA) is the collaborative functioning between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. These tissues work together to regulate hormone production and release, and also moderate bodily functions such as temperature regulation, fluid balance, appetite and thirst detection. Hypofunction of the HPA has been identified as a problem experienced in [[ME/CFS]] patients. Lower cortisol levels were identified in ME/CFS patients than in healthy controls, and has been shown to be connected to [[Sleep dysfunction|decreased sleep]]<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Nijhof | first = Sanne L. | last2 = Rutten | first2 = Juliette M. T.M. | last3 = Uiterwaal | first3 = Cuno S. P.M. | last4 = Bleijenberg | first4 = Gijs | last5 = Kimpen | first5 = Jan L.L. | last6 = Putte | first6 = Elise M. van de | date = Apr 2014 | title = The role of hypocortisolism in chronic fatigue syndrome | url =https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24636516|journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology|volume=42 | pages = 199–206|doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.01.017|issn=1873-3360|pmid=24636516}}</ref>. Exogenous [[cortisol]] administration was tested as a possible treatment however these results should be replicated due to the group’s use of solely the [[Fukuda criteria|Fukuda]] Assessment of ME/CFS (which may allow for error in diagnosis of the condition). Furthermore, several journals suggested [[Cognitive behavioral therapy|CBT]] as a feasible treatment option to increase cortisol levels, however due to the extensive literature questioning and undermining the utility of CBT in ME/CFS in overall treatment, other options should be explored in this research.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Twisk | first = Frank N.M. | last2 = Maes | first2 = Michael | date = 2009 | title = A review on cognitive behavorial therapy (CBT) and graded exercise therapy (GET) in myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME) / chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS): CBT/GET is not only ineffective and not evidence-based, but also potentially harmful for many patients with ME/CFS| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19855350|journal=Neuro Endocrinology Letters|volume=30|issue=3 | pages = 284–299|issn=0172-780X|pmid=19855350}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Núñez | first = Montserrat | last2 = Fernández-Solà | first2 = Joaquim | last3 = Nuñez | first3 = Esther | last4 = Fernández-Huerta | first4 = José-Manuel | last5 = Godás-Sieso | first5 = Teresa | last6 = Gomez-Gil | first6 = Esther | date = 2011-01-15 | title = Health-related quality of life in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome: group cognitive behavioural therapy and graded exercise versus usual treatment. A randomised controlled trial with 1 year of follow-up | url =https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10067-010-1677-y|journal=Clinical Rheumatology|language=en|volume=30|issue=3 | pages = 381–389|doi=10.1007/s10067-010-1677-y|issn=0770-3198}}</ref> ==See also == *[[Neuroendocrine system]] *[[Neuroendocrine symptoms]] ==Learn more == == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Body systems]] [[Category:Endocrine system]]
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